%^ 


lor^ 


^oO!ii-SW^ 


^'^Im^^'' 


NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


S02065439  T 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  unless 
recalled  by  the  Libraries.  Books  not  returned  on 
time  are  subject  to  replacement  charges. 
Borrowers  may  access  their  library  accounts  at: 
http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/ads/borrow.html 


Copyright    1923 

WALLACE    PUBLISHING   COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Corn  and  Corn-Growing 


H?  AT  WALLACE 

AND 

E.  N.  BRESSMAN 


FULLY    ILLUSTRATED 


DES  MOINES 

WALLACE  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
1923 


ijie^^^o^ 


This  text  on  corn  is^j^^Ofmmarily  on  a  teachinji'  outline  of  a  eom- 
I)lete  term  course  on^oi^ilf  an  aj>ricultural  college.  We  have  attempted 
to  include  everM  jl^fical  thing'  related  to  corn.  The  text  is  desi<ined 
not  only  for  cwl^S:e  and  Smith-Hughes  instructors,  but  also  for  experi- 
ment station  workers,  corn  breeders  and  practical  farmers  who  are  inter- 
ested in  growing  more  and  better  corn.  Teachers  may  think  that  the 
order  in  which  the  chapters  are  arranged  is  a  little  unusual.  It  has  been 
found  on  experience,  however,  that  this  order  gives  excellent  results  and 
holds  the  interests  of  the  students  much  better  than  is  the  case  when  the 
botany  and  classification  of  corn  are  discussed  early  in  the  book. 

Although  throughout  the  text  we  are  presenting  the  best  knowledge 
now  available,  we  realize  that  new  scientific  discoveries  and  shifting 
economic  conditions  may  change  things  considerably  in  the  future.  We 
want  to  make  the  student  feel  himself  a  part  of  this  unfolding  instead  of 
having  him  learn  things  in  the  belief  that  they  are  absolutely  true  now 
and  for  all  time. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript  liberal  use  has  been  made  of 
experiment  station  and  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  publi- 
cations, both  with  and  without  credit.  Much  credit  is  due  to  the  early 
and  present  members  of  the  Farm  Crops  Department  of  the  Iowa  State 
College  for  the  aid  given  in  the  early  stages  of  the  preparation  of  the 
manuscript.  Others  have  given  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of 
the  completed  text. 

H.  A.  WALLACE. 
E.  N.  BRESSMAN. 
Sept.  1,  192:3. 


11341 


av 

^ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

1.  HISTORY  OP  CORN 1 

2.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN 8 

3.  CORN  AS  AFFECTED  BY  TEMPERATURE  AND  RAINFALL 11 

4.  THE  ADAPTATION  OF  CORN IS 

5.  PICKING  SEED  CORN 22 

6.  STORING  SEED  CORN 28 

7.  TESTING  AND  GRADING  SEED  CORN 31 

8.  THE  RELATION  OF  SOILS  TO  CORN 35 

9.  PREPARATION  OP  THE  SEED  BED •. 40 

10.  PLANTING  CORN 51 

11.  CULTIVATING    CORN 52 

12.  WEEDS  OF  THE  CORN  FIELD 59 

1.3.     HARVESTING  EAR  CORN 64 

14.  SOFT    CORN 70 

15.  CORN  FODDER 75 

IG.     CORN   SILAGE 80 

17.  HARVESTING  WITH  LIVE  STOCK 86 

18.  COMPANION  CROPS  FOR  CORN 91 

19.  FEEDING  CORN  TO  LIVE  STOCK 96 

20.  MARKETING  CORN 99 

21.  CORN  PRICES 107 

22.  CORN-HOG  RATIOS 115 

23.  COST   OF   CORN   PRODUCTION 119 

24.  INSECTS  OP  CORN 123 

25.  DISEASES  OF   CORN 135 

26.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN 140 

27.  POPCORN  149 

28.  SWEET    CORN 153 

29.  VARIETIES  OF  CORN 157 

30.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PLANT 167 

1.     BOTANICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CORN 170 

32.  CORN  BREEDING 179 

33.  TECHNIQUE  OF  INBREEDING 186 

34.  HEREDITY  IN  CORN 189 

35.  CORN  JUDGING 199 

36.  CORN  YIELD  CONTESTS     203 

37.  COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS  OP  CORN 206 

38.  CORN  GROWING  OUTSIDE  OF  THE  CORN  BELT 212 

39.  CORN  STATISTICS 221 


CHAPTER  1 


HISTORY  OF  CORN 


/^ORN  is  one  of  the  few  standard  crops  that  originated  in  America. 
Early  writers  disagreed  as  to  the  place  of  origin  of  corn,  some  main- 
taining that  it  came  from  eastern  Asia;  others  that  it  came  from  Africa, 
while  still  others  said  it  was  of  American  origin.  The  latter  is  now  gen- 
erally accepted  as  the  true  theory.  The  main  reason  for  the  acceptance 
of  this  theory  is  that  no  mention  is  made  of  corn  in  the  early  writings, 


On  left  fossil  ear  discovered  in  Peru  and  on  right  modern  types  of  corn  as  grown 
in  Peru.     (Courtesy  of  Journal  of  Heredity.) 


and,  with  one  possible  exception,  no  mention  is  made  of  it  until  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  in  1492.  This  possible  exception  is  a  tradition  of  the 
Norsemen  that  they  found  the  grain  being  cultivated  by  the  Indians 
when  these  explorers  landed  on  the  western  continent,  in  1002.  Another 
reason  for  the  belief  that  corn  originated  in  America  is  that  it  was  gen- 
erally cultivated  by  the  natives  when  Columbus  first  discovered  the 
continent.  Its  antiquity  in  America  is  also  indicated  by  the  specimens 
found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Cliff  Dwellers  and  ]\Iound  Builders.  High- 
land Peru  and  southern  Mexico  are  the  two  places  which  have  the  best 


2  CORN  AXI)  CORN-GROWING 

claim  to  being  the  original  home  of  corn.  The  fossil  ear  found  in  1914 
in  Peru  by  Doctor  W.  F.  Parks,  indicates  Peru  as  the  place  of  origin  of 
corn.  The  ear,  -which  is  doubtless  several  thousand  years  old,  is  much 
like  some  of  the  present-day  varieties  grown  in  Peru.  The  specimen  is 
three  inches  in  length,  tapered,  and  rounded  on  the  butt  end.  The  ker- 
nels are  somewhat  like  those  of  rice  popcorn. 

According  to  Harshberger,  the  Indians  pr()ba])ly  first  found  the 
plant  in  ^Mexico,  in  the  region  above  4,500  feet  altitude  and  south  of  20 
degrees  north  latitude  and  north  of  the  river  Coatzacoalcos  and  in  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  It  probably  reached  the  Rio  Grande  about  700 
A.  D.,  and  by  the  j^ear  1000  had  reached  the  coast  of  Maine.  These  dates 
are  more  definite  than  most  writers  give,  but  the  evidence  of  wild  grasses 
related  to  corn  growing  in  southern  Mexico  suggests  IMexico  rather  than 
Peru  as  the  place  of  origin. 

Originated  From  Wild  Grass 

In  southern  IMexico  there  are  two  native  wild  grasses,  gama  grass 
and  teosinte,  both  of  which  are  closely  related  to  corn.  Corn  has  never 
been  found  growing  wild,  and  many  are  of  the  opinion  that  corn  has 
been  developed  from  teosinte,  which  resembles  corn  more  closely  than 
any  other  wild  grass.  Other  writers  think  that  both  corn  and  teosinte 
developed  many  thousands  of  years  ago  from  a  common  ancestor,  pos- 
sibly from  such  a  grass  as  perennial  teosinte,  recently  found  in  southern 
Mexico.  Others  think  that  annual  teosinte  is  a  cross  of  corn  and  peren- 
nial teosinte. 

Teosinte  has  a  tassel  just  like  corn,  and  the  seeds  are  enclosed  by 
hu.sks  and  borne  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  teosinte  ear  (there  is 
no  cob)  is  about  three  inches  long  and  is  composed  of  five  to  ten  ker- 
nels arranged  end  to  end.  Teosinte  readily  crosses  with  corn,  which 
again  suggests  that  the  two  plants  have  a  common  ancestry  or  that  corn 
originated  from  teosinte. 

Corn  and  teosinte  both  doubtless  trace  back  to  a  plant  resembling 
gama  grass,  a  plant  having  a  tassel  at  the  top  and  tassel-like  structures 
on  long,  lateral  branches — all  tassels  bearing  male  flowers  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  tassel  and  female  flowers  on  the  lower  part.  In  the  process 
of  evolution  and  diversification,  the  tassels  at  the  top  came  to  produce 
only  pollen  and  the  tassels  on  the  lateral  branches  only  seeds,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  lateral  branches  were  shortened  until  the  tassels  were 
enclosed  by  husks.  It  is  also  probable  that  in  this  evolution  the  lateral 
tassel  developed  into  an  ear.  Nature  has  been  aided  by  man,  of  course. 
in  the  selection  of  our  present  types  of  corn. 

Early  Types  of  Corn 

IMost  writers  sjjcak  of  flint,  soft,  gourdseed  and  sweet  types  of 
corn  as  beiim'  urowu  b^■  tlu'  Indians  aiid  the  earlv  settlers.     Indications 


HISTORY  OF  TORN 


Teosinte  tassel  and  ear  spike.    The  teosinte  ear  spike  is  covered  with  husks  and 
each  kernel  has  a  silk  just  as  with  corn.     (Courtesy  of  Journal  of  Heredity.) 


4  CORK  AND  CORN-GROWING 

are  that  the  dent  varieties  of  today  are  the  result  of  both  accidental  and 
intentional  crossing  of  gourdseed  and  flint  types.  This  is  discussed 
fully  in  Chapter  26. 

The  Atlantic  Coast  farmers,  from  1800  to  1840,  made  a  real  effort 
to  o'et  high  yielding  strains  of  corn.  The  farm  papers  of  1819  to  1822 
tell  of  several  instances  of  getting  Maha  (undoubtedly  Omaha  Indian) 
■corn  from  Council  Bluffs— now  a  part  of  Iowa.  This  corn  was  an 
•eight-row  soft  corn  type,  and  several  of  the  eastern  farmers  claimed 
yields  of  more  than  100  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  Sioux  yellow,  ten 
to  twelve-row  flint  corn  was  introduced  from  the  west  by  several  grow- 
ers, and  there  were  several  introductions  of  a  Canadian  flint  corn.  These 
introductions,  together  with  the  local  varieties,  are  probably  found  to 
some  extent  in  all  of  our  present-day  varieties,  and  help  to  explain  the 
heterogeneous  nature  of  our  present-day  types. 

The  Iowa  State  Agricultural  Society  report  of  1858  says :  "A  great 
many  varieties  of  corn  are  cultivated,  and  it  would  be  hard  to  tell  which 
is  the  best,  as  farmers  entertain  different  opinions."  IMost  of  the 
varieties  Avere  dents,  according  to  the  report. 

J.  M.  Chambers,  of  Linn  county,  Iowa,  in  1858  wrote:  "The  yellow 
flint  and  the  Virginia  gourdseed  are  the  principal  varieties." 

Early  History  in  America 

Early  explorers  in  America  mention  the  large  fields  of  corn  culti- 
vated by  the  Indians,  and  remarked  about  the  slowness  of  Europe  to 
adopt  this  new  grain,  which  they  considered  so  valuable.  In  1498, 
Columbus  reported  his  brother  as  having  passed  through  eighteen  miles 
of  corn  on  the  Isthmus ;  in  1605,  Champlain  saw  a  field  of  corn  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Kennebec  river ;  in  1609,  Hudson  saw  many  fields  along 
the  Hudson  river,  and  in  1620,  Captain  INIiles  Standish  reported  a  field 
of  500  acres  in  Massachusetts  that  had  been  cropped  the  year  previous. 
Drawings  made  by  Hernandez  of  corn  which  he  found  in  Mexico  about 
1600,  show  the  plant  with  three  or  four  ears  on  the  stalks,  and  ears  with 
eight  or  ten  rows. 

Thomas  Hariot,  a  member  of  the  ill-fated  Virginia  colony  of  1585, 
wrote  in  1588  what  is  probably  the  first  extended  English  description 
of  corn  as  grown  in  what  now  is  the  United  States.  He  stated :  "Paga- 
tour,  a  kinde  of  graine  so  called  by  the  inhabitants;  the  same  in  the 
West  Indies  is  called  Mayse.  .  .  .  The  graine  is  about  the  bignesse 
of  our  ordinary  English  peaze,  and  not  much  different  in  forme  and 
shape,  but  of  diners  colors ;  some  white,  some  red,  some  yellow,  and  some 
blue.  All  of  them  yeelde  a  very  white  sweete  flowre ;  being  used  ac- 
cording to  his  kind  it  maketh  a  very  goode  bread. ' ' 

On  November  16,  1620,  a  group  of  Pilgrims  landed  on  the  Plymouth 
coast  and  spied  five  Indians  whom  they  followed  all  that  day.  The 
next  morning,  they  "found  new  stubble  where  Indian  corn  had  been 
planted  the  same  year."     Near  a  deserted  house  "heaps  of  sand  newly 


HISTORY  OF  CORN  5 

paddled  with  hands  which  they  dio-ged  up  and  found  in  them  divers  fair 
Indian  corn  in  baskets,  some  whereof  was  in  ears,  fair  and  good,  of 
divers  colors,  which  seemed  to  them  a  goodly  sight  having  seen  none 
before." 

The  most  important  history  of  corn  in  this  country,  as  far  as  the 
white  man  is  concerned,  began  with  the  settlement  of  Jamestown  in  1607. 
The  colonists  had  a  hard  time  to  keep  from  starvation ;  and  had  it  not 
been  for  the  corn  obtained  from  the  Indians,  the  colony  would  probably 
have  resulted  in  failure.  The  Indians  taught  the  colonists  how  to  pre- 
pare the  ground  and  plant  the  corn.  The  trees  were  girdled,  the  ground 
stirred  and  the  grain  planted  in  hills  three  or  more  feet  apart.  In  places 
on  the  New  England  coast,  it  was  necessary  to  fertilize  the  ground  be- 
fore it  would  produce  a  crop.  The  Indians  showed  the  colonists  how 
to  fertilize  with  fish.  Herring  or  shad,  which  came  up  the  streams  by 
the  thousands  in  the  spring  to  spawn,  were  caught;  and  one  fish  was 
placed  in  each  hill  of  corn.  One  w-riter  of  the  time  said  that  it  took 
about  a  thousand  fish  to  plant  an  acre  of  corn,  and  without  fish  no 
corn  was  planted.  He  also  stated  that  an  acre  of  corn  planted  with  fish 
yielded  as  much  as  three  acres  planted  without. 

Corn  formed  such  an  important  crop  with  these  colonists  that  many 
laws  were  passed  regulating  the  minimum  amount  to  be  grown  and  the 
methods  of  earing  for  it.  It  was  even  enacted  that  all  dogs  should  be 
tied  by  the  leg  during  planting  time,  to  prevent  their  eating  the  fish. 
Other  laws  were  passed  providing  for  the  payment  of  taxes  in  corn. 
The  price  when  used  for  this  purpose  was  fixed  by  law.  One  writer 
of  the  time  says  that  the  reason  so  much  corn  was  grown  rather  than 
wheat  was  because  wheat  would  not  grow  and  mature.  The  failure  of 
W'heat  was,  of  course,  due  to  the  growing  of  unacclimated  English  va- 
rieties. 

The  cultivation  of  corn  in  America  increased  rapidly.  In  1609,  it 
is  reported  that  thirty  acres  were  planted.  In  1650,  there  is  a  record 
of  600  bushels  being  exported  from  Savannah,  and  from  that  date  on 
there  were  exports  from  the  colonists  almost  annually.  In  1770,  the 
total  exports  were  578,349  bushels,  and  in  1800  this  was  increased  to 
2,032,435  bushels. 

Later  History  in  America 

"With  the  opening  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  the  production  of  corn 
increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  growers  found  that  corn  was  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  this  region,  and  it  at  once  became  the  principal  crop. 
This  .section  soon  became  world-famous  as  the  ' '  Corn  Belt. ' '  About  1870 
began  the  increased  use  of  farm  machinery  and  improved  varieties  of 
corn  so  that  a  man  could  tend  a  much  larger  area  and  at  the  same  time 
obtain  larger  yields.  The  1839,  1859  and  1919  maps  of  corn  production 
in  the  United  States  illustrate  very  vividly  how  recently  the  Corn  Belt 
has  come  into  its  own. 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

MAP  I. 


In  1839  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  were  the  leading  corn  states  and  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  entire  United  States  was  less  than  the  normal  crop  of  Iowa 
today.     (Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


MAP  II. 


From  1839  to  1859  the  center  of  corn  production  moved  north  and  west  and  the 
corn  belt  as  we  now  know  it  began  to  take  shape.  Illinois  and  Ohio  were 
the  leading  corn  states  in  18.59.     (Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


HISTORY  OF  COKX  7 

Schmidt  says  that  during  the  fifty-year  period  from  1849  to  1899 
the  center  of  corn  production  moved  north  only  five  miles,  whereas  at 
the  same  time  the  center  of  production  had  moved  westward  480  miles. 
The  center  of  corn  production  is  now  near  the  IMississippi  river,  not  far 
from  Keokuk,  Iowa. 

History  in  the  Old  World 
Soon  after  the  New  World  was  discovered,  corn  from  the  West  Indies 
and  Peru  was  introduced  into  Spain,  Italy,  southeastern  Europe,  India, 
Africa  and  China.     During  the  sixteenth  century,  corn  growing  spread 

MAP  III. 


In  1919  Iowa  was  the  first  coru  state  and  the  center  of  corn  production  was  not 
far  from  Keokuk,  Iowa.     (Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

with  exceeding  rapidity  over  the  temperate  and  sub-tropical  regions  of 
the  entire  world.  In  no  place,  however,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
a  rather  limited  area  in  the  Balkan  states,  did  corn  come  to  dominate  the 
entire  agriculture  of  a  region  as  it  does  in  the  Corn  Belt  of  the  United 
States.  Much  of  the  corn  grown  in  Europe  has  descended  from  the  trop- 
ical flints  of  the  West  Indies.  In  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  a 
few  Corn  Belt  varieties  were  introduced  into  Europe,  but  generally 
speaking,  corn  as  grown  in  the  Corn  Belt  has  met  Avith  very  little  favor 
anywhere  outside  of  the  Corn  Belt.  For  further  information  concerning 
corn  outside  of  the  Corn  Belt,  see  Chapter  38. 


CHAPTER  2 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN 

/^ORN  produces  more  food  value  per  acre  than  any  other  crop.  A 
.35-bushel  crop  gives  nearly  150  pounds  of  protein  and  more  than 
3.000,000  units  of  energy.  Corn  is  becoming  more  and  more  popular 
as  a  human  food.  It  is  the  main  cereal  food  of  the  cotton  belt.  Corn, 
consumed  directly  and  in  the  form  of  meat,  dairy  and  poultry  products, 
is  the  principal  source  of  food  of  the  American  people. 

The  corn  crop  played  a  vital  part  in  the  great  World  war.  In  re- 
sponse to  widespread  appeals,  the  United  States  acreage  in  1917  was 
increased  more  than  10  per  cent,  and  approximated  117,000,000  acres. 
The  crop  of  3,065,000,000  bushels  was  next  to  the  largest  ever  harvested. 
If  this  crop  had  been  loaded  on  wagons,  each  containing  50  bushels  and 
occupying  20  feet  of  space,  these  wagons,  placed  end  to  end,  would  make 
a  line  long  enough  to  encircle  the  globe  nine  and  one-half  times.  Dur- 
ing the  war  and  the  years  immediately  following,  the  Ignited  States  sent 
Europe  an  average  of  50,000,000  bushels  more  corn  annually  than  was 
customary  before  the  war.  Corn,  both  in  the  form  of  corn  and  of  hog 
products,  played  an  absolutely  decisive  part  in  helping  the  Allies  to 
Avin  the  World  war  and  in  keeping  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Europeans 
from  starving  after  the  war  was  over. 

Corn  has  never  been  used  as  extensively  for  human  food  as  wheat. 
However,  millions  of  the  poorer  classes  in  ]\Iexico,  Italy,  Argentina.  Spain 
and  the  Balkan  states  eat  far  more  corn  than  wheat. 

Value  in  the  United  States 

The  value  of  corn  in  the  agriculture  of  the  United  States  is  well 
known.  In  acreage,  in  multiplicity  of  uses,  in  production  and  in  value, 
it  exceeds  any  other  cultivated  crop.  In  the  decade,  1908  to  1917,  the 
acreage  devoted  to  corn  in  this  country  was  .4.8  per  cent  greater  than 
the  combined  acreage  of  the  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rice,  buck- 
wheat and  flax.  The  value  of  the  corn  crop  for  the  same  period  was  24.3 
per  cent  more  than  the  combined  values  of  these  crops. 

Eventually,  the  manufacture  of  corn  products  in  the  United  States 
will  equal  or  exceed  the  meat  packing  industry.  Even  now,  more  than 
one  hundred  million  bushels  of  corn  every  year  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  such  products  as  starch,  corn  syrup  and  corn  oil.  Corn  is 
one  of  the  greatest  potential  sources  of  the  alcohol  which  will  doubt- 
less be  needed  to  run  our  automobiles  when  eventually  the  crude  petro- 
leum supply  is  exhausted. 

Valuable  as  a  sustainer  of  life  among  primitive  ])eoples  in   peace 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN  9 

and  war,  corn,  ever  since  the  early  days  of  the  Jamestown  and  Plymouth 
colonies,  has  bulked  large  in  the  white  man's  existence  on  this  conti- 
nent.    There  is  no  indication  that  it  will  ever  be  otherwise 

In  the  Corn  Belt 

Corn  is  the  basis  of  wealth  in  the  agricultural  region  known  as  the 
Corn  Belt — Iowa,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Indiana,  eastern  Nebraska,  southeastern 
South  Dakota,  northern  ]\Iissouri,  southern  INIinnesota  and  eastern  Kan- 
sas. One  hundred  and  forty  million  acres  of  the  richest  land  in  the 
world  lie  in  this  Corn  Belt  of  the  United  States,  of  which  Davenport, 
Iowa,,  is  not  far  from  the  center  of  production.  As  may  be  judged  from 
Map  3,  in  Chapter  1,  the  Corn  Belt  extends  about  100  miles  west  into  Ne- 
braska, 75  miles  northwest  into  South  Dakota,  50  miles  north  into  Minne- 
sota and  eastward  through  Iowa,  the  northern  two-thirds  of  Illinois,  Indi- 
ana and  the  western  half  of  Ohio.  This  region  is  the  Corn  Belt  as  it 
exists  in  the  third  decade  of  the  twentieth  century.  As  time  goes  on,  it 
may  shift  a  little  to  the  north. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  forty  million  acres  in  the  American  Corn 
Belt,  about  eighty-five  million  acres  are  plow  land,  and  of  this  plow 
land  about  one-half,  or  forty  million  acres,  are  put  into  corn.  Roughly, 
twenty  million  acres  are  in  tame  grass  meadow  and  twenty  million  acres 
in  oats  and  wheat. 

It  is  corn  that  enables  these  middle-western  states  to  produce  such 
a  surplus  of  pork  and  beef.  The  good  homes,  high  land  values,  and 
prosperity  of  the  Corn  Belt  are  a  direct  outcome  of  the  wealth  that  the 
corn  crop  brings  to  this  region.  The  corn  crop  of  the  Corn  Belt  is  the 
world's  greatest  bulwark  against  famine.  In  times  of  need,  a  part  of 
the  crop  may  be  diverted  from  its  customary  use  as  an  animal  food  to 
its  more  economical  use  as  a  human  food. 

During  the  spring,  summer  and  fall,  the  Corn  Belt  farmer  spends 
nearly  three-fourths  of  his  man  and  horse  labor  on  corn.  He  puts  twice 
as  much  time  on  this  crop  as  on  all  of  his  other  crops  put  together.  Corn 
is  at  the  center  of  Corn  Belt  agriculture.  Wheat,  oats  and  hay  are  grown 
chiefly  to  rest  the  land  in  preparation  for  more  corn  and  to  use  farm 
labor  at  seasons  of  the  year  when  it  can  not  be  employed  in  growing  corn. 

The  Corn  Belt  farmer  feeds  nearly  half  of  his  corn  to  hogs.  It  is 
only  in  rather  limited  areas,  as  in  central  Illinois  and  parts  of  north- 
western Iowa,  that  it  is  customary  to  ship  the  greater  part  of  the  corn 
to  market  in  the  form  of  grain.  In  all  sections,  one-sixth  to  one-fourth 
of  the  crop  is  kept  at  home  to  feed  to  horses.  This  part  of  the  crop  is, 
in  a  sense,  just  as  much  fuel  as  the  gasoline  used  to  run  a  tractor.  Rough- 
ly, 02ie-fiftli  of  the  Corn  Belt  corn  is  sold  in  the  form  of  fat  cattle,  dairy 
products,  chickens  and  eggs.  For  decades  to  come,  the  greater  part  of 
the  corn  of  the  Corn  Belt  must  be  sent  to  market  in  the  form  of  live 
stock  or  live  stock  products.     But  after  the  population  of  the  United 


10  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWIXG 

States  passes  150,000,000,  there  will  be  an  ever-increasino-  percentage  of 
corn  consumed  by  people  and  a  smaller  percentage  consumed  by  fat  cat- 
tle and  fat  hogs. 

The  Corn  Belt  of  the  United  States  is  the  only  place  in  the  world 
where  there  is  such  a  large  area  of  fertile  land  favored  by  a  rainfall  of 
10  to  18  inches  during  the  four  months  following  corn  planting  and 
an  average  mean  temperature  during  the  thirty  days  centering  around 
tasseling  time  of  70  to  80  degrees.  The  only  close  approach  is  in  north- 
central  Argentina,  in  the  provinces  of  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe,  Entre 
Rios  and  Cordoba.  And  in  this  possible  corn  belt  of  Argentina,  winter 
wheat,  alfalfa  and  flax  are  so  profitable  and  the  chance  of  devastating 
summer  drouth  is  so  great  that  there  probably  never  will  be  more  than 
one-half  as  much  corn  grown  as  in  the  American  corn  belt. 


CHAPTER  3 

CORN  AS  AFFECTED  BY  TEMPERATURE  AND  RAINFALL 

r^ORX  requires  abundant  moisture  and  a  moderately  high  tempera- 
ture if  it  is  to  make  its  best  growth.  Laboratory  experiments  in- 
dicate that  when  plenty  of  moisture  is  available,  a  temperature  of  about 
90  degrees  is  most  favorable  both  for  germination  and  growth.  Growth 
stops  altogether  at  temperatures  of  below  40  degrees  or  above  118 
degrees. 

Temperature  for  Germination 
In  most  corn  growing  sections,  the  temperature  during  the  week 
following  planting  is  around  60  to  65  degrees,  and  under  such  a  tem- 
perature corn  usually  appears  above  ground  in  eight  or  ten  days.  When 
the  ground  is  cold  and  the  temperature  averages  50  to  55  degrees,  it 
usually  takes  eighteen  or  twenty  days  for  the  corn  to  come  up.  When 
the  temperature  is  less  than  55  degrees,  it  seems  that  the  slowly  sprout- 
ing corn  kernels  are  very  susceptible  to  root  rot  infections ;  whereas, 
when  the  temperature  is  above  60  degrees  the  kernels  are  much  more 
resistant.  If  the  soil  is  warm  and  moist  and  the  corn  is  planted  shallow, 
a  temperature  of  70  degrees  will  bring  it  above  ground  in  five  or  six 
days.  In  the  central  part  of  the  Corn  Belt,  yield  and  temperature  rec- 
ords indicate  that  a  mean  temperature  of  55  degrees  or  less  during  May 
tends  to  reduce  the  yield  by  about  15  per  cent.  A  temperature  of  56 
to  5S  degrees  will  not  ordinarily  cut  the  yield  by  more  than  3  or  4  per 
cent,  unless  accompanied  by  heavy  rains  and  prolonged  cloudy  weather. 

Temperature  and  Rainfall  During  June 

From  the  time  the  corn  comes  up  until  it  reaches  a  height  of  three 
feet,  it  is  necessary  under  practical  farm  conditions  to  give  three  or 
four  cultivations,  in  order  to  kill  the  weeds.  This  can  be  accomplished 
most  effectively  when  June  is  rather  hot  and  dry.  A  mean  tempera- 
ture of  70  to  72  degrees  in  June,  with  two  to  four  inches  of  rain,  seems 
to  be  ideal.  A  mean  temperature  of  more  than  75  degrees  for  the  month 
of  June  is  so  often  accompanied  by  exceedingly  dry  weather,  not  only 
in  June  but  also  in  July,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  history  that  years  of  ex- 
ceedingly hot  Junes  are  usually  years  of  below-average  corn  crops. 

July  Weather  and  Corn  Yield 

In  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  ^lissouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  southern 

Iowa,  the  rainfall  and  temperature  during  the  ten  days  before  and  the 

twenty  days  following  tasseling  time  have  more  to  do  with  corn  yield 

than  the  weather  at  any  other  period.     Ideally,  there  should  be  four  or 


]2 


C(^RX  AXl)  CORX-CiROWIXG 


five  inches  of  rainfall  durinii'  this  thirty-day  period,  and  the  mean 
temperature  should  average  from  72  to  74  degrees.  Corn  appreciates 
mean  temperatures  as  high  as  85  degrees,  but  as  a  practical  proposi- 
tion, mean  temperatures  above  75  degrees  nearly  always  lower  the  yield 
for  the  reason  that  such  temperatures  cause  the  corn  plants  to  trans- 
pire water  more  rapidly  than  they  can  take  it  up  from  the  ground. 
This  might  not  be  true  under  irrigation,  but  in  the  Corn  Belt,  mean 
temperatures  above  75  degrees  are  usually  accompanied  by  drouth.  It 
is  also  true  that  a  drouth  which  would  cause  very  little  bother  at  70 
degrees  may  be  a  serious  matter  at  80  degrees,  for  it  has  been  found 
at  the  Xebraska  station  that  a  full-grown  corn  plant  will  transpire  daily 

MAP  IV. 


76 '  7( 

Average  temperature  isotherms  during  June,  July,  and  August  in  the  corn  belt. 
The  most  productive  corn  land  is  north  of  the  75-degree  line  and  south  of 
the  69-degree  line.  Only  in  southwestern  Minnesota  is  there  really  good 
corn  land  somewhat  north  of  the  69-degree  line.  The  breeding  of  high  yield- 
ing early  varieties  may  possibly  push  the  northern  limit  of  the  Corn  Belt 
beyond  the  69-degree  line. 

about  four  pounds  of  water  at  a  mean  temperature  of  70  degrees,  where- 
as at  80  degrees  it  will  transpire  about  seven  pounds. 

During  this  thirty-day  period,  on  land  capable  of  producing  forty 
bushels  per  acre  under  favorable  conditions,  each  degree  the  mean  tem- 
perature averages  above  74  degrees  cuts  the  corn  yield  by  about  1.2 
bushels  per  acre,  and  each  inch  the  rainfall  is  below  four  inches  cnts 
the  yield  by  two  bushels.     For  instance,  w^ith  land  yielding  forty  bush- 


EFFECTS  OF  TEArPERATFRE  xVXD  RAINFALL 


l;] 


els  per  acre  under  the  best  conditions,  if  the  corn  starts  to  tassel  on 
July  18  and  the  temperature  from  July  8  to  August  7  averages  78 
degrees  and  the  rainfall  totals  two  inches,  the  indicated  jield  •would  be 
forty  bushels  minus  4.8  bushels  because  of  high  temperature  and  four 
bushels  because  of  drouth,  or  31.2  bushels. 

A  general  one-inch  rain  during  late  July  often  increases  the  pros- 
pective crop  of  the  Corn  Belt  states  by  two  or  three  bushels  per  acre, 
or  by  a  total  of  over  100,000,000  bushels.  Some  people  have  therefore 
spoken  of  such  a  rain  as  worth  millions  of  dollars  to  the  farmers.     As 

MAP  V. 


Number  of  days  from  time  temperature  normally  rises  above  61  degrees  in 
spring  until  it  goes  below  65  degrees  in  the  fall.  This  map,  together  with 
Map  IV,  indicates  fairly  accurately  where  the  early  maturing  strains  are 
required.  In  northeastern  Illinois  much  earlier  varieties  are  required  than 
in  the  same  latitude  in  Iowa. 


a  matter  of  fact,  December  future  corn  prices  as  set  by  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Trade  during  July  and  early  August  reflect  these  rains  in 
such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  total  prospective  value  of  the  new  crop  changed 
but  little.  The  rain  which  increases  the  prospective  corn  crop  of  the 
Corn  Belt  by  100,000,000  bushels,  or  by  7  per  cent,  will  also  lower  De- 
cember corn  futures  prices  by  6  to  12  per  cent.  The  July  and  early 
August  rains  which  add  100,000,000  bushels  to  the  coming  crop  of  the 
Corn  Belt  usually  result  in  the  new  corn  being  priced  4  or  5  cents  a 
bushel  cheaper,  or  enough  to  make  the  total  value  actually  somewhat 
less  than  if  the  rain  had  not  come.     It  is  the  corn  product  manufacturers, 


14 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


exporters  and  stockmen  who  buy  more  corn  than  they  raise,  Avho  benefit 
by  the  July  and  Aug-ust  rains  which  increase  the  corn  crop.  And,  of 
course,  it  is  always  true  that  those  corn  sections  which  receive  heavy 
July  rains  when  the  Corn  Belt  oenerally  is  hot  and  dry,  benefit  enor- 
mously at  the  expense  of  their  less  fortunate  neighbors. 

December  Future  Corn  Prices  and  July  Weather 

Generally  speaking",  the  Chicago  December  future  corn  price,  as 
quoted  day  bj^  day  during  July  and  August  in  the  daily  papers,  is  the 
best  measure  for  the  average  farmer  of  how  the  new  corn  crop  of  the 
entire  Corn  Belt  is  being  treated  by  the  weather.     If  on  July  30  the 


MAP  VI. 


13'^12' 

Average  inches  of  rainfall  in  three  .'summer  months  of  June,  July,  and  August. 

December  future  price  is  6  cents  a  bushel  higher  than  on  July  20,  it 
is  an  indication  that  there  has  been  practically  no  rain  anywhere  in 
the  Corn  Belt  during  the  past  ten  days.  If  the  price  during  this  jieriod 
has  dro])ped  by  2  cents  a  bushel,  it  is  almost  certain  that  there  have 
been  abundant,  well-distributed  rains  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Corn 
pje.lt.  Sometimes  December  corn  futures  during  July  and  August  are 
affected  to  some  extent  by  business  conditions  and  by  wheat  prices,  but 
as  a  rule  they  move  up  and  down  in  symjiathy  with  C-orn  Belt  weather 
and  verv  little  else. 


EFFECTS  OF  TE:\1PERATURE  AND  RAINFALL  15 

Northern  loAva  and  southern  Minnesota  differ  from  the  central 
part  of  the  Corn  Belt  in  that  they  are  more  likely  to  be  damaged  by 
cold  and  wet  during  May  and  June  than  by  heat  and  drouth  during  July. 
It  is  only  in  years  of  exceptional  drouth,  like  1894  or  1901,  that  the 
northern  part  of  the  Corn  Belt  is  likely  to  suffer  much  from  July  weather. 
Even  in  such  years,  the  corn  of  the  northern  Corn  Belt  is  usually  not 
so  very  far  below  normal,  whereas  there  is  a  great  shortage  in  the  central 
and  southern  parts  of  the  Corn  Belt.  The  net  result,  as  a  rule,  of  dry, 
hot  July  weather,  so  far  as  northern  corn  farmers  are  concerned,  is 
prosperity  at  the  expense  of  the  corn  farmers  further  south.  On  the 
other  hand,  cold,  wet  summers  like  1915  and  1917  hurt  the  corn  yields 
in  the  north  and  boost  them  south  of  central  Iowa. 

From  a  commercial  standpoint,  drouth  and  heat  during  July  and 
early  August  have  much  more  effect  on  the  corn  market  than  cold  and 
wet  at  any  time  of  the  year. 

August  Weather 

Over  most  of  the  Corn  Belt,  heat  and  drouth  during  the  first  half 
of  August  are  almost  as  likely  to  hurt  the  corn  crop  as  heat  and  drouth 
in  July.  ]\Iissouri,  Nebraska  and  Kansas  corn  is  especially  susceptible 
to  heat  damage  during  the  first  half  of  August.  North  of  central 
Iowa,  however,  the  corn  yield  is  more  likely  to  be  damaged  by  cold 
weather  in  August  than  by  hot  weather.  August  weather  averaging 
below  69  degrees  seems  to  damage  the  corn  crop  in  northern  Iowa  and 
southern  ]\Iinnesota,  especially  in  years  when  the  May,  June  and  July 
weather  has  also  been  a  little  cooler  than  normal.  The  ideal  August 
weather  is  a  temperature  of  72  or  73  degrees  and  a  rainfall  of  four  or 
five  inches. 

After  August  20,  the  weather  usually  has  very  little  significance. 
The  corn  plant  at  this  time  is  manufacturing  and  storing  sugar  and 
starch  much  more  rapidly  than  earlier  in  the  season.  Nevertheless, 
after  thirty  days  have  lapsed  following  tasseling,  it  seems  that  moder- 
ately dry  weather  does  no  damage.  Rainfall  is  important  while  the 
young  corn  kernels  are  just  forming,  but  for  some  reason  is  not  so  neces- 
sary when  the  corn  plant  is  most  actively  at  work  storing  food  in  these 
kernels  during  late  August. 

Frost 

Frost  has  far  less  effect  on  the  corn  crop  than  most  people  think. 
In  a  season  which  has  been  unusually  cool  throughout,  like  1915  or  1917, 
a  September  frost  may  cause  much  soft  corn  north  of  southern  Iowa. 
Occasionally,  as  was  the  case  in  1920,  unusually  warm  September  weather 
enables  the  corn  crop  to  avoid  the  frost  damage  which  seemed  almost 
inevitable.  It  is  only  rarely  that  frost  causes  any  widespread  damage 
to  corn.     As  a  rule,  most  corn  is  sufficiently  matured  to  withstand 


16  CORN  AND  rORK  GROWING 

frost  damage  two  or  three  weeks  before  killing  frost  actually  comes. 
Frost  damage  is  never  reflected  in  the  price  of  corn  on  the  terminal 
markets  in  the  same  way  as  heat  and  drouth  damage. 

Heat  and  Rapidity  of  Growth 
"While  mean  temperatures  above  74  degrees  during  the  twenty  days 
following  tasseling  time  seem  to  harm  the  corn  crop,  it  is  also  true  that 
previous  to  tasseling  time  the  rapidity  with  which  the  corn  grows  de- 
pends largely  on  the  temperature.  During  June  and  early  July,  corn 
grows  twice  as  fast  on  those  days  when  the  mean  temperature  is  78 
degrees  as  it  w'ill  when  the  mean  temperature  is  onl}^  62  degrees.  A 
75-degree  mean  results  in  about  25  per  cent  faster  growth  than  70  de- 
grees. A  number  of  years  ago,  at  the  Pennsylvania  station  they  found 
that  during  the  three  weeks  preceding  tasseling  time  there  was  a  tend- 
ency for  corn  to  grow  in  twenty-four  hours  at  the  following  rates  at 
varying  mean  temperatures : 

'  05  degrees 3.2  inches 

70  degrees 4.1  inches 

72  degrees 4.5  inches 

75  degrees 5.1  inches 

7S  degrees 5.4  inches 

The  average  temperature  during  the  fifty  or  sixty  days  following 
planting  time  is  the  chief  influence  determining  just  when  a  given 
variety  of  corn  will  tassel.  With  the  ordinary  115-day  strain  of  such 
varieties  as  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  the  following  temperatures  during 
the  sixty  days  following  planting  result  in  the  varying  lengths  of  time 
till  tasseling  about  as  follows: 

68  degrees 74  days  from  planting  to  tasseling 

70  degrees 66  days  from  planting  to  tasseling 

73  degrees 54  days  from  planting  to  tasseling 

With  a  so-called  ninety-day  strain,  the  corresponding  table,  based 
on  temperatures  during  the  forty-five  days  following  planting  time,  is 
as  follows: 

67  degrees 59  days  from  planting  to  tasseling 

69  degrees 51  days  from  planting  to  tasseling 

71  degrees 43  days  from  planting  to  tasseling 

After  tasseling  starts,  heat  no  longer  plays  such  an  important  part. 
The  number  of  days  from  tasseling  until  ripe  does  not  vary  with  the 
heat  in  the  same  clear-cut  fashion  as  the  number  of  days  from  planting 
to  tasseling. 

Extremely  high  temperatures  (above  95  degrees  during  the  heat 
of. the  day)  may  kill  the  pollen  within  an  hour  or  two  after  it  is  shed 
and  thus  cause  poor  pollination  if  the  high  temperatures  are  continued 
day  after  daj'  at  the  time  the  pollen  is  flying.  The  storing  of  food  in 
the  corn  kernel  during  late  July  and  August  is  an  altogether  different 


EFFECTS  OF  TEMPER ATURP]  AND  RAINFALL  J 7 

process  than  the  rapid  growing  of  the  corn  plant  during  late  June  and 
early  July.  And  it  seems  that  hot  weather  does  not  have  nearly  as 
much  to  do  with  hastening  ripening  as  it  does  with  causing  rapid  growth 
before  tasseling. 

Cold  Nights 

It  is  a  common  belief  that  corn  will  not  grow  satisfactorily  in  re- 
gions where  the  nights  are  cool,  though  the  days  be  warm.  Usually,  the 
true  explanation  why  corn  is  not  grown  in  such  sections  is  something 
else.  In  South  Africa,  where  corn  growing  has  expanded  at  a  phe- 
nomenal rate  since  1900,  the  minimum  temperature  at  night  during  the 
tasseling  season  averages  only  about  60  degrees,  and  in  some  sections  it 
is  as  low  as  55  degreees  Cool  nights  reduce  the  rapidity  of  growth 
previous  to  tasseling,  but  if  the  season  is  long  there  is  no  definite  proof 
that  cool  nights  (55  to  60  degrees  at  the  low  point  of  the  night)  reduce 
the  yield. 

Summary 

The  ideal  corn  season  in  the  central  part  of  the  Corn  Belt  is  about 
as  follows : 

May — 65  degree  mean  temperature  (warmer  than  average),  3.5  inches  of 
rain. 

June — 71  degree  mean  temperature,  3.5  inches  of  rain. 

July — 73  degree  mean  temperature  (cooler  than  average),  4.5  inches  of 
rain. 

August — 73  degree  mean  temperature,  4.5  inches  of  rain. 

Xo  temperatures  above  96  degrees  in  the  heat  of  the  day  at  tassel- 
ing time,  ground  thoroughly  saturated  with  moisture  during  the  twenty 
davs  following  tasseling. 


CHAPTER  4 

THE  ADAPTATION  OF  CORN 

/^OKX,  in  its  distribution  over  the  United  States,  has  been  changed  in 
many  ways  by  nature  and  by  the  plant  breeder  and  farmer.  The 
corn  crop  has  shown  especial  adaptability  to  differences  in  lenpth  of 
seasons.  At  the  present  time,  there  are  at  least  1,000  varieties,  some  of 
which  mature  in  80  days  in  the  North  and  others  in  150  days  or  more 
in  the  South.  Because  of  its  wonderful  adaptation  to  conditions,  the 
crop  is  now  o-rown  with  success  in  every  state  of  the  nation,  from  sea  level 
to  })1ateaus  a  mile  above. 

Home-Grown  Seed 

Ordinarily,  it  is  a  poor  practice  to  buy  seed  corn.  The  average 
farmer  should  rely  chiefly  on  seed  grown  in  his  own  field  or  his  neigh- 
bor's field  until  he  has  proved  by  actual  test  in  his  own  field  that  a 
certain  strain  from  outside  has  greater  yielding  power.  It  is  usually 
folly  of  the  worst  sort  for  a  farmer  in  central  Nebraska  to  buy  any  large 
quantity  of  Indiana  seed  corn,  even  though  it  may  be  grown  in  the  same 
latitude.  ^Moving  corn  more  than  100  miles  north  or  south  is  always 
uncertain.  However,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  as  grown  in  south-central 
Iowa,  usually  gives  a  good  account  of  it.self  in  central  Illinois,  and  vice 
versa.  Some  sorts  do  poorly  when  moved  only  twenty  or  thirty  miles, 
whereas  other  strains  have  an  unusuall}-  Avide  adaptation. 

Farmers  have  observed  the  superiority  of  well-adapted  varieties. 
This  superiority  is  demonstrated  when  good  home-grown  seed  is  planted 
in  comparison  with  seed  imported  from  a  distance.  The  value  of  home- 
grown seed  was  shown  in  two  series  of  five-year  tests  conducted  by  the 
Ignited  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  co-operation  with  twenty- 
eight  state  experiment  stations.  Equivalent  lots  of  seed  were  grown 
each  year  at  all  the  station.s.  These  experiments  indicated  that  varie- 
ties which  produce  best  at  home  often  yield  poorest  when  tested  under 
another  environment. 

During  a  period  of  seven  years,  samples  of  seed  corn  obtained  from 
forty  to  sixty  farmers  in  each  of  twenty-nine  counties  in  Iowa  were 
planted  side  by  side  under  identically  the  same  conditions  for  a  compara- 
tive study  of  quality  and  yielding  power.  These  tests  showed  that  in 
each  of  these  counties  there  were  from  three  to  eight  men  who  had  corn 
yielding  an  average  of  10.9  bushels  per  acre  more  than  the  average  of 
all  other  local  corns  tested,  an  average  of  19.7  bushels  per  acre  more 
than  .seed  purchased  from  seed  firms,  and  an  average  of  13.5  bushels 
more  than  seed  introduced  into  the  county  from  prominent  seed  corn 
breeders  or  growers  in  other  sections  of  the  state. 


THE  ADAPTATION  OF  CORN  19 

At  the  Nebraska  station,  six  leading  varieties  of  corn  were  compared 
for  two  and  three  years,  the  seed  in  one  case  being  native  grown  and  in 
the  other  from  Iowa  or  Illinois.  Here  in  every  case  the  native  seed 
of  the  same  variety  gave  the  better  yield,  the  average  being  a  difference 
of  6.2  bushels. 

Effect  of  Acclimatization  on  Yield* 

A  more  striking  result  was  secured  when  varieties  representing  three 
degrees  of  acclimatization  were  grown  in  comparison  at  the  experiment 
station.  The  first  group  of  five  varieties  represented  seed  taken  from 
samples  receiving  high  prizes  at  the  National  Corn  Show.  They  came 
from  the  very  best  growers,  and  were  undoubtedly  productive  varieties 
of  corn  in  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio,  where  they  originated.  Being  show 
com,  it  is  probable  they  had  been  grown  under  most  favorable  condi- 
tions, thus  making  them  less  suited  than  the  average  to  withstand  the 
^•ery  dry  and  unfavorable  season  they  were  grown  at  the  station.  The 
second  group  was  made  up  of  a  collection  of  varieties  secured  from  grow- 
ers in  the  state,  but  located  at  some  distance  from  the  station  and  on 
somewhat  different  soil.  The  third  group  was  made  up  of  a  collection 
of  varieties  grown  for  several  years  by  farmers  near  the  station. 

Table  I — Effect  of  Acclimatization  on  Corn 

~~  r       ~ 

Character  of  Seed  |  Yield  Per  A. 

I 

Show  corn  from  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio  (five  varieties) j   39.8  bushels 

Seed  from  growers  in  state  (five  varieties) |   4,5.6  bushels 

Local  varieties  near  experiment  station  (seven  varieties) |   48.8  bushels 

These  results  were  unusually  marked,  due  to  the  very  dry,  hot  sea- 
son during  the  earing  time,  but  a  season  that  would  not  be  unusual  far- 
ther west  in  the  state.  The  data  plainly  indicate  the  value  of  native 
seed — that  from  a  distance  yielding  39.8  bushels;  that  from  the  state, 
but  at  .some  distance,  yielding  45.6  bushels,  and  that  from  farmers  near 
the  station  yielding  48.8  bushels  per  acre. 

Changes  in  Corn  Not  Adaptedf 

AVhen  corn  grown  in  one  section  of  the  country  for  a  number  of 
years  is  moved  to  another  section  where  soil  and  climate  are  different, 
the  plant  always  undergoes  more  or  less  change  during  the  first  two  or 
three  years  before  it  becomes  adapted  to  its  new  conditions. 

The  definite  effect  of  climate  in  modifying  the  corn  plant  is  shown 
in  the  following  experiment :  Seed  of  two  varieties  of  corn,  Snowflake 
White  and  loAva  Gold  Mine,  was  obtained  from  Iowa  and  grown  in 


♦Nebraska  Bulletin  No.   126. 
vNebraska  Bulletin  No.  91. 


L>;)  (M)KX  AND  COKX-GKOWIXG 

Nebraska  for  two  years.  In  the  third  year,  seed  was  taken  from  this, 
and  seed  was  also  obtained  from  the  same  original  source  in  Iowa.  These 
were  all  planted  in  adjacent  plo'ts  at  the  experiment  station.  A  marked 
difference  was  shown  throughout  the  experiment  between  the  different 
plots.  In  the  Snowflake  "White  variety,  the  stalk  from  the  seed  that 
had  grown  in  central  Nebraska  for  two  years  had  decreased  almost  a 
foot  in  height,  the  ear  was  8.8  inches  lower  down,  and  the  ear  shank 
almost  two  inches  shorter,  while  th(>  plants  from  Nebraska  seed  had 
an  average  of  1.2  fewer  leaves. 

The  weight  of  both  stalk  and  ear  was  found  to  be  heavier  in  the 
corn  grown  from  the  seed  just  from  Iowa,  but  the  proportion  of  ear  to 
stalk  was  higher  in  the  acclimated  corn.  The  Nebraska  corn  averaged 
almost  200  square  inches  less  leaf  area,  which  was  to  be  expected  of 
plants  grown  in  a  drier  climate.  The  yield  of  grain  was  in  favor  of  the 
home-grown  seed. 

Similar  conclusions  were  indicated  from  variety  tests.  Of  the 
twenty-two  varieties  that  were  tested  by  the  co-operating  farmers  in 
various  parts  of  the  state,  thirteen  were  Nebraska  grown,  four  from 
Illinois,  two  from  Iowa,  one  from  Indiana  and  two  from  Minnesota.  In 
these  experiments,  the  significant  fact  was  revealed  that  not  one  of  the 
nine  varieties  the  seed  of  which  was  grown  outside  of  the  state  ever 
took  first  or  even  second  place  in  the  average  results  for  the  state.  These 
results  do  not  indicate  that  the  varieties  from  the  other  states  are  poorer 
seed  than  our  own.  Their  low  yield  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  not 
at  first  adapted  or  acclimatized  to  our  own  conditions. 

The  lesson  to  be  learned  from  this  is  that  to  get  the  best  results 
in  corn  growing,  the  seed  must  be  home-grown,  and  grown  not  only  in 
the  same  state  but  in  the  same  locality.  The  results  of  the  variety  tests 
indicate  that  seed  grown  in  eastern  Nebraska  will  not  do  as  well  in 
western  Nebraska  as  local  varieties,  and  vice  versa.  There  should  be 
careful  growers  of  seed  in  every  county  of  the  state. 

Use  of  Unadapted  Seed 

Too  many  Avill  send  away  for  seed  when  better  seed  may  be  found 
at  home  than  can  be  obtained  anywhere  else.  It  is  always  uncertain 
to  buy  seed  from  a  distance,  and  this  is  doubly  true  when  good  seed  is 
scarce.  One  is  likely  to  pay  much  more  than  it  would  cost  to  separate 
out  the  good  ears  by  means  of  the  germination  test.  Seed  grown  as  far 
south  as  Oklahoma  has  been  sold  through  agents  to  Corn  Belt  farmers 
for  planting  their  crop.     There  can  be  but  one  result — soft  corn. 

A  mistaken  idea  prevails  in  regard  to  the  "running  out"  of  corn 
because  it  has  been  grown  too  long  in  a  locality.  The  longer  a  corn  is 
grown  in  the  same  locality,  the  better  ada})ted  it  becomes  to  the  condi- 
tions of  that  particular  locality,  provided  good  seed  is  used  each  year. 

On  the  edge  of  the  Corn  Belt  and  in  new  corn  region.s,  much  trouble 
is   caused   by   growing   unadapted   strains.     Nearly   every   introduction 


thp:  adaptation  of  corn  21 

of  unadapted  corn  has  proved  to  be  a  failure.  A  corn  grower  in  south- 
ern New  Mexico  introduced  practically  every  known  variety  of  the  Corn 
Belt,  but  with  no  success.  The  unselected  native  corn  of  his  own  sec- 
tion yielded  more  than  fancy,  high-priced,  imported  seed.  ]\Iany  other 
similar  instances  could  be  quoted. 

If  seed  corn  must  be  purchased,  it  should  be  obtained  from  a  local- 
ity where  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  practically  identical  with  those 
of  the  place  where  the  corn  is  to  be  grow^n.  The  price  of  seed  corn  is 
not  important.  The  loss  of  from  two  to  five  dollars  a  bushel,  the  aver- 
age price  of  seed  corn,  is  small  as  compared  to  the  loss  of  a  large  part 
of  the  crop.  A  bushel  of  seed  corn  should  produce  on  the  average 
300  bushels  of  corn.  At  50  cents  a  bushel,  the  produce  of  a  bushel  of 
seed  is  worth  $150.  The  loss  of  stand,  immaturity,  etc.,  resulting  from 
unadapted  seed  corn  may  actually  cause  a  loss  of  $20  or  $30  per  bushel 
of  seed  planted. 


CHAPTER  5 
PICKING  SEED  CORN 

TT  IS  doubtful  whether  the  governor  of  each  Corn  Belt  state  could  issue 
a  more  valuable  proclamation  each  year  than  one  proclaiming  a  suit- 
able week  for  all  farmers  of  the  state  to  gather  and  dry  seed  corn.     One 
year  the  governor  of  Iowa  issued  a  proclamation  as  follows : 

To  The  Farmers  of  Iowa: 

Your  attention  is  again  directed  to  the  serious  situation  that  often  con- 
fronts the  state  in  the  springtime  on  account  of  the  lack  of  good  seed  corn. 
Because  of  the  high  valuation  of  our  land,  it  is  essential  that  the  very  best  seed 
possible  be  provided. 

Wages  are  high  and  hired  help  hard  to  secure.  It  is,  therefore,  primarily 
important  that  everything  possible  be  done  to  increase  the  production  of  corn 
per  man  power.  One  hundred  per  cent  seed  corn  will  very  greatly  increase 
the  production  of  corn  per  acre  and  the  production  per  man  power. 

Permit  me  again  to  urge  every  farmer  to  save  enough  seed  corn  this  fall 
to  supply  his  needs  for  next  season,  and  if  possible,  a  surplus  for  the  follow- 
ing season.  By  doing  this,  you  are  following  a  wise  and  sound  business  prin- 
ciple, as  well  as  rendering  a  service  to  agriculture  generally  and  our  whole 
country. 

Therefore,  by  virtue  of  authority  in  me  vested,  I,  W.  L.  Harding,  Governor 
of  the  State  of  Iowa,  call  upon  all  of  the  farmers  of  this  state  to  help  in  this 
important  work,  and  for  the  purpose  of  concentrating  upon  this  matter,  I  pro- 
claim and  set  aside  the  period  commencing  September  20  and  ending  October 
2,  1920,  as  seed  corn  weeks,  and  earnestly  urge  that  this  period  be  made  one  of 
general  participation  in  this  great  work. 

In  Testimony  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  caused  to  be 
affixed  the  great  seal  of  the  state. 

Done  at  Des  Moines,  this  si^iteenth  day  of  August,  1920. 

No  prudent  Corn  Belt  farmer  will  allow  October  15  to  pass  with- 
out having  sufficient  seed  for  at  least  one  year's  planting  stored  w^here 
it  can  not  be  injured  by  unfavorable  weather  conditions.  The  average 
farmer  who  picks  corn  from  his  own  field  a  week  or  two  before  killing 
frost,  and  Avho  stores  that  seed  in  an  airy  place  where  the  ears  do  not 
touch  and  where  they  will  not  freeze  before  they  are  dried  out,  will  get 
paid,  on  the  average,  at  least  a  dollar  an  hour  for  his  time.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  Corn  Belt,  October  1  should  be  the  latest  date  for 
picking  seed  corn  from  the  field.  Field  selected  seed  should  be  picked 
several  weeks  before  the  corn  is  dry  enough  to  husk  and  crib. 

Farmers  in  localities  that  sometimes  have  no  seed  corn  because  tlie 
jn-evious  season  was  too  dry  or  too  short  may  "insure"  themselves  by 


PICKING  SP^.ED  (U)RX 


23 


saving  early  each  fall  a  supply  of  seed  corn  sufficient  for  two  or  three 
years'  planting.  Good  seed  corn  well  cared  for  will  retain  good  germi- 
nation and  high  productivity  for  three  years. 

Corn  has  been  transported  from  a  land  of  perpetual  summer,  where 
the  returning  wet  season  permitted  the  seed  to  germinate  without  having 


Picking  seed  corn  before  frost. 

endured  winter  conditions.  It  has  been  introduced  into  northern  locali- 
ties where  the  winters  are  severe.  It  has  shown  a  remarkable  ability 
to  adapt  itself  to  short  summers,  but  is  dependent  upon  man  to  care  for 
its  seed  during  the  winter.  Therefore,  seed  corn  should  be  picked  before 
killing  frost. 

To  get  the  largest  yields  of  corn,  it  is  desirable  to  grow  a  variety 
that  will  use  nearly  all  of  the  growing  season  of  an  average  j^ear.  In 
the  seasons  shorter  than  the  average,  much  of  the  corn  will  not  dry 
enough  to  escape  injury  from  freezing.  In  such  seasons,  field  selec- 
tion is  necessary  to  obtain  seed  that  will  grow.  In  some  varieties,  con- 
tinued early  selection  will  tend  to  reduce  the  number  of  days  required 
for  maturity  by  as  much  as  a  week  or  ten  days.  In  the  northern  half 
of  the  Corn  Belt,  this  earliness  is  desirable  and  will  not  reduce  the  yield 
if  other  factors  are  properly  cared  for. 

In  years  when  June,  July  and  August  are  unusually  cool  and  rainy, 
it  is  of  altogether  extraordinary  importance  to  go  through  the  field  in 


24  CORX  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

late  September  and  pick  one  bushel  of  the  best  matured  ears  for  each 
three  acres  which  are  to  be  planted  the  following  spring.  The  frost 
damage  to  seed  corn  in  1915  and  1917  was  forecast  long  in  advance 
by  the  cool  summer  weather.  On  the  other  hand,  in  years  of  heat  and 
drouth  during  July  and  August,  t^ere  is  almost  never  any  danger  of 
frost  damage  to  seed  corn  unlei^is^mjfere  are  exceptionally  heavy  rains 
in  September  and  October.  In^cn  years  it  may  be  perfectly  safe  to 
delay  the  picking  of  the, seed  corn  until  regular  corn  husking  time.  To 
be  on  the  safe  side,  ]^'e.y^,  it  is  well  to  make  it  an  invariable  rule 
to  pick  and  hang  uaMone'^eek  before  the  average  date  of  killing  frost 
one  bushel  of  seed  o^iVl^r  each  three  acres  to  be  planted  the  following 
spring.  ^'' 

Cause  of  £W^i^  Injury* 

The  underlying  causes  pfvfreeziHg  injury  are  late  maturity  of  the 
corn  and  abnormally  ead^Vireezto^'  weather.  Late  maturity  may  re- 
sult from  (1)  late  VJg^^S^j^v  planting  of  unadapted  varieties,  and 
(3)  peculiar  weath^^onditions  which  do  not  favor  early  ripening. 
Undue  early  freezing <:njj?Jr  work  similar  injury  to  corn  which  would 
possess  strong  vitality*"  under  normal  weather  conditions.  When  sub- 
jected to  a  severe  frost,  immature  corn  suffers  a  partial  or  total  loss 
of  germinative  power. 

The  germ  in  a  sound  kernel  of  corn  is  an  embryonic  living  jilant 
with  stalk,  leaves  and  root.  When  this  living  germ  contains  a  large 
amount  of  moisture,  some  physical  or  chemical  change  is  brought  about 
by  freezing,  which  results  in  death.  Following  this,  the  germ  usually 
turns  dark  in  color,  which  is  a  fairly  safe  index  as  to  whether  the  ger- 
mination has  been  destroyed. 

As  the  moisture  content  of  the  corn  decreases,  the  injury  to  the 
vitality  of  the  kernel  from  exposure  to  any  given  freezing  temperature 
is  decreased.  Dry  corn  containing  10  to  14  per  cent  of  moisture  will 
not  be  injured  by  any  amount  of  winter  freezing.  Air  dry  corn  with 
a  moisture  content  of  10  or  12  per  cent  will  withstand  the  freezing 
temperature  of  liquid  air,  or  190  degrees  Fahrenheit  below  zero.  On 
the  other  hand,  corn  with  60  per  cent  moisture  may  be  killed  by  pro- 
longed exposure  to  barely  freezing  temperatures.  There  may  be  varia- 
tion in  the  moisture  content  of  kernels  on  the  same  ear,  which  will  ac- 
count for  partially  impaired  germination  of  an  ear.  In  1915,  as  much 
as  16  per  cent  variation  was  found  in  the  moisture  content  of  such 
kernels. 


*Nebraska  Bulletin  No.  163. 


PICKING  SEED  CORN 


Table   II — Moisture   Content  and   Germination   of   Corn   Harvested   at 
Various  Dates  During  Fall  and  Winter  of  1917-1918 


Condition  of  Corn  at  Time  of  First  Frost,  October  8 


Moisture  in  Grain  of 
Corn  Gathered  on 


Shocked  Corn — 

1.  Fairly  well  matured,  ears  solid 

Corn  Standing  in  Field — 

2.  Fairly  well  matured,  ears  solid 

3.  Somewhat  rubbery,  ears  twisted... 

4.  Very  rubbery,  grain  medium  soft 

5.  Grain  very  soft 

6.  Late  dough  stage 

7.  Milk  stage 


I  I 

301     171 


17 
21 
26 

27 
i  34 
I     36 


I     26] 


- 

S 

1 

1 

15 

1 
16| 

16 

1 
15| 

18 

16 1 

23 

19| 

26 

21| 

28 

28  i 

33 

291 

Condition  of  Corn  at  Time  of  First  Frost,  October 


Per  Cent  Perfect  Germi- 
nation of  Corn  Gath- 
ered on 


I  I  I  I 

98|  85|  93|  871  86 

!  I  1  I 

98|  83|  87|  93|  88 

94|  56|  79|  59|  61 

92|  34|  20|  14|  20 

92|  14|  17|  5|  6 

82|  10|  10|  01  0 

44|  1|  1|  0|  0 

Minimum  temperature,  degrees  F~ "1241  "171  -16|  -18j  -21 


Shocked  Corn — 

1.  Fairly  well  matured,  ears  solid 

Corn  Standing  in  Field— 

2.  Fairly  well  matured,  ears  solid 

3.  Somewhat  rubbery,  ears  twisted... 

4.  Very  rubbery,  grain  medium  soft. 

5.  Grain  very  soft 

6.  Late  dough  stage 

7.  Milk  stage 


*The  first  selection  was  made  after  the  first  killing  frost,  which  occurred 
in  the  early  morning  of  October  8. 

November  19 — Prolonged  freezing,  with  minimum  of  17  degrees  F. 
December  11 — Prolonged  freezing,  with  minimum  of  -16  degrees  F. 
December  29 — Prolonged  freezing,  with  minimum  of  -18  degrees  F. 
January  17 — Prolonged  freezing,  with  minimum  of  -21  degrees  F. 

Methods  of  Selection 

If  the  best  seed  ears  are  planted  in  one  portion  of  the  field,  a  large 
amount  of  labor  will  be  saved  in  picking  seed  corn  in  the  fall.  This  por- 
tion of  the  field  will  usually  contain  the  number  of  good  seed  ears 
sought. 

Seed  corn  should  be  : 

1.  "Well  adapted  to  seasonal  and  soil  conditions  where  it  is  to  be  planted. 

2.  Grown  on  productive  plants  of  a  productive  variety. 

3.  Well  matured  and  preserved  from  ripening  time  until  planting,  so  that 
it  will  retain  its  full  vigor. 


26 


CORN  AND  COKX  GROWING 


A  seed  corn  cart  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  aids  in  gatlieringr 
seed  corn.  It  calls  attention  to  the  necessity  of  gettinj?  into  the  field 
before  the  first  frost,  to  select  the  seed  ears.  A  wooden  soap  box  fast- 
ened upon  a  pair  of  iron  wheels  similar  to  cultivator  wheels,  and  a  couple 
of  poles  for  shafts  makes  a  cheap  but  handy  seed  corn  cart.  A  seed  corn 
sack  is  not  so  invitin^i  to  the  ordinary  farmer.  Anyone  who  has  carried 
a  sack  eontainino;  about  a  bushel  of  corn  through  the  field  knows  that  it 
is  a  tiresome  task. 

]More  than  one  row  of  stalks  may  be  observed  when  picking  seed 
corn.  However,  as  much  time  as  possible  should  be  given  to  a  study  of 
stalk  conditions.  The  practical  rule  to  follow  in  picking  seed  corn  in  the 
field  is  to  save  the  ears  which  are  medium  large,  well  matured,  solid, 
and  carried  on  a  stiff  stalk  at  from  three  to  five  feet  above  the  ground. 


A  seed  corn  cart. 


The  ear  should  be  borne  on  a  shank  which  points  the  ear  downward  rather 
than  upward.  Later  on,  the  ears  may  be  gone  over  for  the  finer  points. 
Of  course,  no  ear  should  be  saved  showing  any  sign  of  mold,  and  neither 
should  an  ear  be  saved  if  it  comes  from  a  stalk  infested  with  smut,  fusa- 
rium  or  any  other  kind  of  disease. 

In  Illinois  and  the  states  further  west  and  north  it  seems  to  be  ad- 
visable to  pick  for  ears  with  a  moderately  smooth  dent,  ears  with  kernels 
which  are  smooth,  shin.v  and  horny.  In  central  and  southern  Indiana, 
however,  highest  yields  are  obtained  with  roughlv  dented  corn  which 


PICKING  SEED  CORN  l>7 

is  somewhat  starch}-.  A  rather  broad,  thick  kernel  seems  to  be  best 
in  nearly  all  sections.  The  kernel  should  carry  its  Avidth  well  toward 
the  tip,  for  there  is  probably  no  more  serious  weakness  in  Corn  Belt 
seed  corn  than  the  narrow,  tapering,  shoe-peg  type  of  kernel.  Ears 
carrying  kernels  of  this  sort  almost  never  have  that  solid,  heavy-for- 
their-size  feeling  which  characterizes  ears  with  broad,  thick  kernels  which 
carry  their  width  well  toward  the  tip. 

If  home-grown  seed  is  not  selected  before  husking  time,  it  may  be 
obtained  by  any  of  the  following  methods : 

1.  Select  from  the  load  when  husking  for  early  feed. 

2.  Select  at  time  of  general  husking  by  having  a  box  on  the  side  of  the 
wagon  for  seed  ears. 

3.  Select  at  the  time  the  husked  corn  is  being  elevated  into  the  cribs. 

4.  Select  and  test  ears  from  the  crib  during  winter  or  spring. 

5.  Use  one-year-old  seed. 

The  first  method  is  practiced  only  to  a  limited  extent,  while  the 
second  method  is  the  most  common  way  of  getting  seed  corn,  and  is  a 
satisfactor}^  method  in  years  of  well-matured  corn.  However,  in  "soft 
corn"  years  there  w411  be  great  difficulty  in  getting  viable  seed.  The 
third  and  fourth  methods  are  better  than  using  unadapted  seed.  If 
the  one-year-old  seed  has  been  kept  under  good  storage  conditions,  it 
makes  desirable  seed  for  planting. 


CHAPTER  6 

STORING  SEED  CORN 

npOO  often  seed  corn  is  not  taken  care  of  after  pickinp-.  If  field- 
selected  seed  corn  is  not  stored  in  a  dry.  well-ventilated  place  where 
it  will  not  freeze,  it  may  as  well  be  left  in  the  field  until  harvest  time. 
The  husked  ears  should  be  stored  the  same  day  that  they  are  picked. 
A  good  storage  place  for  seed  corn  should  have  the  following  essentials : 

1.  Dry. 

2.  Well  ventilated. 

3.  Protected  from  weather. 

4.  Temperature  above  freezing. 

5.  Free  from  mice. 

6.  Convenient  for  handling  and  testing  the  seed. 

Provided  the  windows  and  doors  are  left  open  on  all  clear,  bright 
days  during  the  fall,  the  following  are  good : 

1.  Dry  attic  or  spare  room. 

2.  Dry  cellar. 

3.  Any  dry,  well  ventilated  building. 

All  the  following  places  have  so  often  proved  bad  for  seed  that 
they  should  be  avoided : 

1.  Barn  where  there  is  live  stock  or  hay-mow  above  live  stock. 

2.  Over  oats  or  corn. 

3.  Damp  cellar. 

4.  Closed  attic  over  kitchen. 

5.  Any  damp  or  closed  place. 

6.  Out  in  the  open. 

The  common  practice  of  hanging-  seed  ears  in  corn  cribs  or  other 
open  buildings  maj'  obtain  good  ventilation,  but  it  offers  no  protection 
against  freezing.  Although  corn  containing  less  than  16  per  cent  of 
moisture  is  not  readily  injured  by  cold  weather,  most  seed  corn  contains 
more  than  this  amount  of  moisture  in  the  fall.  Under  certain  condi- 
tions seed  corn  may  be  stored  in  a  dry  basement.  This  practice  should 
not  be  encouraged  unless  the  ventilation  is  good.  Frequently,  the  ven- 
tilation of  a  basement  is  poor  and  the  humidity  of  the  air  high,  affording 
good  conditions  for  the  growth  of  mold.  There  is  probably  no  better 
place  in  which  to  store  seed  corn  than  in  a  well  ventilated  room  in  the 
house,  provided  the  room  temperature  does  not  fall  below  26  degrees  F. 
A  desirable  arrangement  for  the  farmer  who  saves  a  large  amount  of 
seed  corn  is  to  build  a  house  especially  for  storing  seed  corn. 

The  method  of  storing  is  of  secondary  importance,  provided  the 
place  is  right.  The  method  selected,  however,  should  provide  a  free 
circulation  of  air  on  all  sides  of  each  ear.  In  other  words,  no  two  ears 
should  touch,  nor  should  they  lie  flat  upon  a  board  or  other  surface. 
This  is  especially  important  when  the  ears  are  selected  early  and  con- 
tain a  large  amount  of  moisture.     It  is  also  important  that  the  .seed  be 


STORLXG  HEED  CORN 


29 


protected  from  mice  and  rats.     A  method  which  probably  best  meets 
both  of  these  conditions  is  that  of  hanging  the  ears  individually.     It  is 

safe  to  take  down  the  ears  when  the 

moisture  content  is  less  than  18  per 
cent.  Seed  corn  stored  under  good 
conditions  should  be  dry  enough  to 
withstand  winter  temperatures  with- 
in fifty  days  after  picking. 

Artificial  heat  is  sometimes 
used  in  drying  seed  corn,  where  it  is 
necessary  to  dry  it  rapidly  or  where 
large  quantities  are  handled.  AVhen 
heat  is  used,  it  should  be  applied 
gradually  and  temperatures  higher 
than  70  degrees  should  be  avoided. 
Too  rapid  drying  will  injure  the 
vitality  of  the  seed.  For  small  quan- 
tities, however,  such  as  will  be  need- 
ed on  individual  farms,  air  drying 
of  seed  corn  is  satisfactory. 
Wire  Hanger 

One  of  the  cheapest,  most  con- 
venient and  most  satisfactory  hang- 
ers for  storing  seed  corn  is  the  wire 
hanger,  cut  from  electric-welded 
hog-tight  fencing.  As  the  hangers 
are  cut  from  the  wire  the  long  way,  they  may  be  made  any  de- 
•sired  length.  This  v.-ire  has  perpendicular  strands  two  inches  apart 
and  horizontal  strands  four  inches  apart,  thus  making  a  2x4-inch  rect- 
angular mesh. 

The  wire  is  cut  in  such  a  manner  that  looking  at  the  hanger  filled 
with  corn  and  hanging  up,  two  ears  are  hung  in  pairs,  opposite  each 
other,  and  each  pair  of  ears  is  four  inches  below  the  pair  above.  The 
wire  may  be  cut  with  a  cold  chisel  and  a  hammer,  using  a  piece  of  iron 
on  which  to  rest  the  wire ;  or  with  a  pair  of  wire  cutters. 

Seed  ears  may  be  placed  on  these  hangers  rapidly.  The  hangers 
may  be  hung  on  nails  driven  into  rafters  or  2x4 's,  wath  the  greatest 
economy  of  space.  These  hangers  may  also  be  carried  from  place  to 
place  and  conveniently  laid  on  tables  for  the  germination  test  without 
having  the  corn  fall  off.  When  through  with  them  in  the  spring,  they 
may  be  tied  in  bunches  and  stored  in  a  small  space.  The  cost  of  wire 
and  the  labor  in  preparing  hangers  for  1,000  ears  need  not  exceed  tv.'o 
dollars. 

The  illustration  shows  48-inch  wire  fencing  cut  for  making  seed  corn 
hangers.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  wire  is  cut  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  waste. 


twine  luince 


30 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWIXC 


Making   seed   corn   hangers  out  of  electric  welded  fence.     Note  the   alternate 
wire  method  of  cutting. 

Binder  Twine  Hanger 
The  binder  twine  hanger  is  one  on  which  a  large  amount  of  seed 
may  be  hung  in  a  comparatively  short  time  and  in  a  little  space.  Take 
a  piece  of  binding  twine,  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  in  length,  and  after 
tying  the  ends  together,  place  a  loop  over  each  hand  and  lay  an  ear 
in  the  middle  at  the  bottom  so  that  each  end  of  the  ear  is  supported  by 
a  strand  of  the  twine.  The  two  ends  of  the  loop  are  then  crossed  and 
another  ear  is  placed  on  the  crossed  twine  above  the  first  one.  This 
operation  is  repeated  until  the  string  is  full.  By  the  use  of  a  shuttle  de- 
vice, one  man  can  string  the  ears  about  as  fast  as  two  can  working  with- 
out it.  Objections  to  this  hanger  are  that  ears  fall  out  and  one  ear  can 
not  be  removed  without  tearing  down  the  entire  hanger. 

Other  Hangers 

Woven  wire,  tacked  on  both  sides  of  a  framework,  made  i)refer- 
ably  of  four-inch  material,  makes  a  handy  seed  corn  rack.  Lath  tacked 
four  inches  apart  on  each  side  of  four-inch  uprights  make  desirable 
racks.  Each  pair  of  lath  accommodates  twenty-five  or  more  ears.  Such 
a  rack  five  feet  in  height  holds  400  ears. 

Other  good  devices  are  made  by  driving  nails  into  boards,  poles, 
or  posts,  over  which  the  butts  of  the  ears  are  thrust.  These  hangers 
are  known  as  seed  corn  trees.  A  large  number  of  devices  for  storing 
corn  have  been  offered  on  the  market.  Many  of  them  give  good  sat- 
isfaction and  may  be  used  by  those  who  do  not  care  to  devise  a  method 
of  their  own. 


CHAPTER  7 

TESTING  AND  GRADING  SEED  CORN 

TF  >SEED  corn  is  picked  before  freezing  weather  and  stored  in  a  dry, 
Avell  ventilated  place  and  protected  from  freezing  temperatures  until 
it  is  well  dried,  there  is  no  need  of  seed  corn  testing.  But  in  order  to 
be  absolutely  safe,  every  farmer,  in  February,  should  germinate  two 
hundred  kernels  of  corn  from  tM^o  hundred  ears  taken  at  random.  If 
less  than  90  per  cent  of  these  kernels  grow  strongly,  it  will  almost  cer- 
tainly pay  the  farmer  a  dollar  an  hour  for  his  time  to  make  a  thorough 
ear  by  ear  test  of  all  the  ears  which  he  expects  to  plant. 

The  Cheap  and  Efficient  Rag  Doll 

The  rag  doll  seed  corn  germinator,  according  to  Hughes,  of  Iowa, 
made  possible  a  satisfactory  corn  crop  throughout  all  of  the  Corn  Belt 
in  1918,  when  we  were  at  war  and  when  a  failure  in  our  corn 
crop  would  have  been  a  national  disaster.     Seed  corn  fit  to  plant  was  not 


Rag  doll  (courtesy  of  Iowa  Station) 

to  be  had  in  any  quantity,  perhaps  not  enough  to  plant  one-tenth  of  the 
corn  crop.  The  only  means  of  getting  good  seed  was  by  testing  mil- 
lions of  individual  ears,  separating  the  good  from  the  bad.  The  doll 
germinator  was  used  in  making  practically  all  of  these  tests. 


32  TORN  AND  COKX-GROWIXG 

Tlie  ear  by  ear  test  may  be  made  easily  -with  the  ra<j:  doll  tester, 
which  is  the  simplest  of  all  the  home-made  testers.  To  make  and  fill  a 
forty  ear  rag  doll  tester  : 

1.  Tear  sheeting  into  strips  nine  inches  wide  and  seventy  inches  long. 

2.  Spread  the  cloth  lengthwise  on  table  and  rule  through  the  middle  and 
crosswise  every  three  inches,  leaving  five  inches  on  each  end.  This  makes 
twenty  squares  on  each  half  of  the  doll. 

3.  Number  the  squares,  beginning  with  "1"  in  upper  left-hand  corner, 
"20"  in  upper  right-hand  corner,  "21"  in  lower  left-hand  corner,  "40"  in  lower 
right-hand  corner. 

4.  Write  numbers  corresponding  to  the  forty  ears  being  tested  on  the 
back  of  the  left-hand  end  of  the  cloth. 

5.  Thoroughly  wet  the  cloth  and  spread  it  smoothly  on  the  table,  with 
Square  No.  1  at  the  left. 

6.  Remove  six  kernels  from  representative  parts  of  Ear  No.  1  and  place 
in  Section  No.  1  of  the  cloth,  etc. 

7.  Use  a  stick  or  roll  of  paper  the  diameter  of  a  pencil,  around  which  to 
roll  the  cloth. 

S.  Roll  the  cloth  carefully,  but  not  too  tightly,  beginning  at  the  right- 
hand   end. 

9.  Place  a  cord  or  rubber  band  loosely  around  the  middle  and  firmly 
around  each  end  of  the  rag  doll. 

10.  Soak  in  lukewarm  water  for  five  to  ten  minutes. 

After  soaking',  turn  a  bucket  upside  down  over  the  dolls,  keeping 
them  from  drying  out  while  the  kernels  are  given  time  to  germinate. 
If  placed  in  a  pail,  the  dolls  should  be  raised  so  that  the  lower  end  will 
receive  sufficient  air  and  not  stand  in  the  water.  '^1  ^z  dolls  are  stood 
up,  the  sprouts  will  grow  toward  one  end  and  the  roots  toward  the 
other,  making  the  test  much  easier  to  read  than  where  the  dolls  are 
allowed  to  lie  flat.  This  method  also  insures  better  drainage  and  bet- 
ter ventilation.  It  is  also  w^ell  to  put  a  wet  piece  of  gunny  sack  or  other 
coarse  cloth  around  the  dolls  to  prevent  them  from  drying  out.  The 
dolls  should  be  sprinkled  often  enough  to  keep  them  .l.^t.  They  should 
be  kept  at  room  temperature,  60  to  80  degrees  F.  The  end  bands  should 
be  removed  after  two  days,  to  allow  sufficient  room  for  growth.  In 
five  or  six  days,  the  germination  test  should  be  ready  to  read. 

To  read  the  test,  carefully  unroll  the  doll.  Examine  all  kernels 
elo.sely.  In  ca.se  all  six  kernels  do  not  show  strong  germination,  the 
ear  should  be  discarded.  There  is  danger  of  discarding  as  worthless, 
liowever,  ears  called  "slow  germinators, "  which,  though  backward  in 
germination,  are  practically  as  strong  as  any.  At  the  Iowa  station, 
ears  which  when  tested  and  read  as  having  six  weak  kernels,  gave  a 
higher  stand  and  a  greater  yield  in  tests  than  any  other  class  of  ears 
with  the  exception  of  those  read  as  six  strong.  If  seed  is  very  scarce, 
it  may  be  well  to  save  ears  showing  not  more  than  one  dead  kernel  out 
of  the  six  tested.  In  reading  the  test,  watch  for  signs  of  mold  and  other 
disease.  The  use  of  the  germination  test  in  selection  of  disease-free 
corn  will  be  gone  into  more  in  detail  in  Chapter  25. 


TESTING  AND  GRADING  SEED  CORN  83 

Cost  of  Testing 

The  cost  of  testin<>'  individual  ears  of  corn  for  germination  de- 
pends upon  the  method  used  and  the  efficiency  of  the  operator.  From 
the  tests  made  at  the  Iowa  experiment  station,  the  cost  has  been  found 
to  be  from  15  cents  to  45  cents  for  each  one  hundred  ears.  The  differ- 
ence was  due  entirely  to  the  method  of  testing  which  was  emploj'ed.  The 
cost  of  testing  corn  by  the  rag  doll  method  was  18  cents  and  by  the  saw- 
dust box  method,  27  cents.     This  was  on  the  basis  of  pre-war  values. 

The  cost  of  selecting  seed  for  planting  an  acre  will  depend  upon 
the  method  used  and  the  quality  of  the  corn.  If  the  corn  is  of  fair  qual- 
ity so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  throw  away  too  many  ears,  the  cost 
per  acre  will  be  less  than  10  cents.  And  even  if  the  corn  is  of  such  poor 
vitality  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  throw  away  85  per  cent  of  the  ears, 
the  total  cost  of  getting  out  enough  for  an  acre  will  not  be  over  25  cents. 

What  to  Do  if  Low  Testing  Corn  Must  Be  Planted 

Even  though  corn  with  a  general  test  as  low  as  60  per  cent  must 
be  planted,  the  effect  on  the  yield  is  not  necessarily  very  serious,  pro- 
vided the  farmer  knoM's  that  he  is  planting  low  testing  corn  and  in- 
creases his  rate  of  planting  accordingly.  If  the  farmer  would  plant 
100  per  cent  corn  at  the  rate  of  three  kernels  per  hill,  he  should  plant 
60  per  cent  corn  at  the  rate  of  five  kernels  per  hill  in  order  to  get  as 
many  live  kernels  planted  on  each  acre  as  with  good  corn.  According 
to  the  theory  of  probabilities,  17,500  kernels  of  60  per  cent  corn  planted 
on  an  acre  of  3,500  hills  would  result  approximately  in  : 

36  hills  with  5  dead  kernels. 

272  hills  with  5  live  kernels. 

907  hills  with  1  dead  and  4  live  kernels. 

269  hills  with  4  dead  and  1  live  kernel. 

1,210  hills  with  2  dead  and  3  live  kernels. 

806  hills  with  3  dead  and  2  live  kernels. 

If  the  live  keriiVi'  f^om  60  per  cent  corn  grew  as  vigorously  as  from 
100  per  cent  corn,  the  yield  should  not  be  affected  by.  more  than  two 
or  three  bushels  per  acre  by  such  a  distribution  as  the  above.  At  any 
rate,  at  the  Nebraska  station,  as  a  five-year  average,  they  found  that 
alternating  hills  of  one,  two,  three,  four  and  five  plants  yielded  at  the 
rate  of  58.6  bushels  per  acre,  as  compared  with  59  bushels  where  every 
hill  contained  three  plants.  One  of  the  greatest  objections  to  planting 
60  per  cent  seed  corn  is  that  the  hills  with  four  to  five  stalks  have  a  rather 
high  percentage  of  nubbins. 

Shelling  and  Grading  Seed  Corn 
Shell  the  .seed  corn  by  hand,  discarding  the  tips  and  butts.  Shell 
each  ear  in  a  pan  by  itself  before  dumping  it  into  the  sack  with  the  rest 
of  the  shelled  ears.  As  you  shell,  note  the  kernel  type.  Throw  out  ears 
the  kernels  of  which  show  decided  signs  of  starchiness  or  dull  color  on 
the  backs  of  the  kernels ;  also  throw  out  ears  with  kernels  showing  hlis- 


34  CORX  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

tered  jzerms  or  other  sijins  of  immaturity.  Watch  for  moldiness  around 
the  tips  of  the  kernels.  IMoldiness  is  one  of  the  most  .serious  seed  corn 
defects,  and  all  ears  showing-  a  sign  of  it  should  be  thrown  out.  Dis- 
card ears  with  shoe-pegi>y  kernels  which  do  not  come  out  full  and  plump 
to  the  tip.  Moderately  large,  well-matured  kernels,  with  a  plump  tip 
and  with  a  shiny,  horny  back,  free  from  starch,  seem  to  be  associated 
with  yielding  power  more  than  any  other  factors  which  we  can  tell  about 
merely  by  looking  at  the  seed.  Shelling  corn  by  hand  gives  the  time 
required  to  judge  the  kernel  type  effectively.  It  also  avoids  a  few  broken 
kernels,  although  this  is  really  not  important. 

After  .shelling,  it  helps  a  little  to  run  the  corn  over  either  a  cheap 
hand  grader  or  a  cylinder  machine  grader.  Iowa  experiments  indicate 
that  size  of  kernel  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  in  determining 
yield.  The  light,  small  kernels  are  especially  likely  to  be  poor  yielders. 
Theoretically,  therefore,  the  eliminating  of  the  small  kernels  with  a  grader 
should  be  decidedly  worth  while.  And,  of  course,  kernel  uniformity  is 
of  real  help  in  getting  the  best  results  out  of  the  corn  planter. 


CHAPTER  8 

THE  RELATION  OF  SOILS  TO  CORN 

npHE  best  corn  soils  are  ^vell  drained,  deep,  dark  loams.  Sand}^  soils, 
unless  heavily  manured,  are  not  desirable  for  corn,  as  they  dry  out 
quickly  and  are  usually  low  in  fertility.  On  the  other  hand,  clay  soils 
are,  as  a  rule,  poorly  drained  and  too  compact  to  produce  the  best  corn. 

The  good  corn  soils  of  central  Illinois  and  northern  Iowa  contain 
in  the  plowed  soil  of  an  acre  about  1,200  pounds  of  phosphorus,  4,500 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  35,000  pounds  of  potassium.  On  this  type  of 
soil,  one  to  two  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  and  one-half  to  one  per  cent 
of  the  phosphorus  seem  to  become  available  in  the  ordinary  year.  A 
forty-bushel  corn  crop  (grain  and  stover)  removes  from  the  soil  sixty 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  eight  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  twenty-eight  pounds 
of  potassium.  Nitrogen  and  phosphorus  are  the  two  elements  that  are 
likely  to  limit  corn  yield,  except  on  deep  peats  where  potassium  is  usually 
lacking.  Calcium,  applied  in  the  form  of  lime,  often  gives  an  increase 
of  three  or  four  bushels  of  corn  per  acre. 

Corn  is  the  rankest  feeding  and  the  most  destructive  of  soil  fertility 
of  all  our  common  crops.  Only  on  the  very  richest  soils  caii  corn  be 
grown  for  more  than  two  years  in  succession  with  any  assurance  of 
profit.  In,  humid  regions,  corn  yields  may  be  maintained  or  increased 
by  the  use  of  (1)  rotations,  (2)  barnyard  manure,  (3)  clover,  (4)  crop 
residue.s,  (5)  good  tillage,  (6)  commercial  fertilizers. 

Crop  Rotations 

The  all-important  and  economical  way  of  maintaining  corn  yields 
is  to  use  proper  crop  rotations.  Of  course,  the  short-time  tenant  can 
not  make  very  much  use  of  the  rotation.  In  other  cases,  rotation  is 
very  valuable,  and  should  be  an  important  part  of  the  fertility  plan  of 
a  farm.  The  most  common  rotations  in  the  Corn  Belt  (in  some  sections 
wheat  is  grown  instead  of  oats)  are  as  follows: 

1.  Continuous  corn. 

2.  Corn-oats. 

3.  Corn-oats-clover. 

4.  Corn-corn-oats-clover. 

When  corn  is  grown  on  good  land  continuously,  the  available  fer- 
tility not  only  decreases  rapidly,  but  there  tends  to  be  increasing  dam- 
age from  corn  insects  and  diseases.  After  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  con- 
tinuous corn  growing,  the  yield  tends  to  be  about  twenty-five  bushels 
per  acre,  as  contrasted  with  thirty-five  bushels  where  the  corn  and  oats 


36 


( 'OKX  AND  ( H)  RX-G  ROW  I XG 


arc  rotated,  and  sixty-five  buslicls  where  there  is  a  rotation  of  corn,  corn, 
oats  and  clover,  and  where  ei<iht  tons  of  manure  are  applied  once  every 
four  years. 

The  corn,  oats,  clover  rotation  is  preferred  to  the  corn,  corn,  oats, 
clover  rotation  on  the  poorer  soils  and  will  oive  an  increase  of  about 
five  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre. 

The  typical,  good  corn  soil  of  Towa  and  central  Illinois  yiidds  about 
fifty-five  bushels  of  corn,  one  year  with  another,  when  a  rotation  of 
corn,  corn,  oats  and  clover  is  used  and  when  eight  tons  of  manure  are 


Spreading 


ino-^t    iinporicinl    jobs    tonnected    with    corn 
growing. 


applied  per  acre  every  eight  or  nine  years.  If  no  manure  whatever  is 
used,  and  reliance  is  placed  solely  on  a  rotation  of  corn,  corn,  oats  and 
clover  for  maintaining  yields,  the  average  acre  corn  yield  one  year  with 
another  on  typical  good  corn  soil  should  be  around  forty-five  bushels, 
with  the  tendency  very  slightly  downward  as  the  lime  leaches  out  of  the 
soil  and  it  becomes  more  difficnlt  to  get  a  stand  of  clover  every  four 
3'ears.  If  a  rotation  of  corn  and  oats  alone  is  used  without  any  clover, 
the  yield  should  be  around  thirty-five  bushels  per  acre,  but  with  the 
tendency  gradually  downward.  For  ten  or  fifteen  years  there  may  be 
an  average  of  only  five  or  six  bushels  difference  between  the  acre  yield 
of  a  corn  and  oats  rotation  and  that  of  a  corn,  corn,  oats  and  clover 
rotation,  but  as  the  years  go  on,  the  difference  seems  to  widen  out  to 
about  fifteen  bushels  per  acre. 


THE  RELATION  OF  SOILS  TO  CORN  ?,! 

Barnyard  Manure 

If  the  labor  spent  on  the  corn  crop  is  to  bring'  in  more  than  hired- 
hand  wag'es,  the  jield  should  be  more  than  forty  bushels  per  acre.  But 
as  to  just  what  is  the  most  practical  plan  of  building  up  a  corn  soil 
beyond  this  point  depends  on  the  particular  situation  of  each  farmer. 
The  man  who  has  possession  of  a  farm  for  only  two  or  three  years  may 
find  it  decidedly  inadvisable  to  make  any  effort  to  grow  clover.  But 
no  matter  how  a  man  is  situated,  it  almost  invariably  pays  to  haul  out 
all  manure  every  spring  and  every  fall  (oftener  if  it  is  at  all  convenient) 
and  spread  it  at  the  rate  of  about  eight  tons  per  acre  on  land  which  is 
to  be  plowed  for  corn.  If  only  enough  manure  were  available,  the  prob- 
lem of  maintaining  a  highly  productive  corn  soil  would  be  very  simple. 
Unfortunately,  on  most  corn  belt  farms,  there  is  available  enough  ma- 
nure to  give  an  application  of  eight  tons  per  acre  only  once  in  every 
eight  years.  Under  practical  conditions,  the  fields  near  the  barn  get 
eight  tons  per  acre  once  every  four  years,  and  the  outlying  fields  get 
manure  rarely  if  ever. 

A  ton  of  manure  contains  about  ten  pounds  of  nitrogen,  two  pounds 
of  phosphorus  and  ten  pounds  of  potassium,  and  it  normally  has  the 
ability  of  eventually  increasing  the  corn  yield  by  about  three  bushels, 
as  well  as  having  some  effect  on  the  small  grain  and  clover.  The  first 
step  in  building  up  a  corn  soil  is  to  haul  out  the  manure.  The  man  who 
does  not  do  that  is  rarely  justified  in  spending  money  for  lime,  phos- 
phate or  other  fertilizer. 

Clover 

Where  a  man  has  possession  of  a  farm  for  a  number  of  years,  the 
third  step  in  building  up  a  highly  productive  corn  soil  is  to  grow  clover 
once  in  every  four  years,  instead  of  only  once  in  every  fifteen  or  twenty 
years,  as  is  the  case  on  most  Corn  Belt  farms.  But  in  order  to  grow 
clover  successfully,  it  is  necessary  in  many  sections  to  apply  two  tons 
of  limestone  and  300  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  (or  1,000  pounds  of  rock 
phosphate)  per  acre  once  every  four  years.  The  limestone  is  best  ap- 
plied just  previous  to  clover  seeding,  but  the  acid  phosphate  or  rock  phos- 
phate is  best  mixed  with  the  manure  as  it  is  loaded  just  previous  to 
being  hauled  out  to  the  corn  ground. 

Plow  Under  Corn  Stalks* 

Corn  stalks  should  be  turned  under,  and  not  burned.  Probably  no 
form  of  organic  matter  acts  more  beneficially  in  producing  good  tilth 
than  corn  stalks.  It  is  true,  they  decay  rather  slowly,  but  it  is  also  true 
that  their  durability  in  the  soil  is  exactly  what  is  needed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  good  tilth.  Furthermore,  the  nitrogen  in  a  ton  of  corn  stalks 
is  one  and  one-half  times  that  of  a  ton  of  manure,  and  a  ton  of  drv 


'Illinois  Soil  Report  No  24. 


38  CORN  AND  rORX-GROWIXG 

corn  stalks  incorporated  in  the  soil  will  ultimately  furnish  as  much  hnmus 
as  four  tons  of  average  farm  manure.  When  burned,  however,  both 
the  humus-making  material  and  the  nitrogen  are  lost  to  the  soil. 

Proper  Handling* 

It  is  a  common  practice  in  the  Corn  Belt  to  pasture  the  corn  stalks 
during  the  winter,  and  often  rather  late  in  the  spring  after  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground.  This  tramping  by  stock  sometimes  puts  the  soil  in 
bad  condition  for  working.  It  becomes  partially  jniddled  and  will  be 
cloddy  as  a  result.  If  tramped  too  long  in  the  spring,  the  natural  agen- 
cies of  freezing  and  thawing  and  wetting  and  drying,  with  the  aid  of 
ordinary  tillage,  fail  to  produce  good  tilth  before  the  crop  is  planted. 
Whether  the  crop  is  corn  or  oats,  it  necessarily  suffers,  and  if  the  season 
is  dry,  much  damage  may  be  done.  If  the  field  is  put  in  corn,  a  poor 
stand  is  likely  to  result,  and  if  put  in  oats  the  soil  is  so  compact  as  to 
be  unfavorable  for  their  growth.  Sometimes  the  soil  is  worked  when 
too  wet.  This  also  produces  a  partial  puddling,  which  is  unfavorable  to 
physical,  chemical  and  biological  processes.  The  bad  effect  will  be 
greater  if  cropping  has  reduced  the  organic  matter  belov.-  the  amount 
necessary  to  maintain  good  tilth. 

Commercial  Fertilizers 
Having  made  the  best  utilization  ]:)0ssible  of  rotations,  manure, 
legumes  and  crop  residues,  the  question  arises  whether  mineral  plant 
foods  can  be  used  profitably.  It  is  well  known  that  even  live  stock 
farming,  with  the  most  careful  conservation  of  manure,  does  not  main- 
tain fertility  (unless  concentrates  bought  from  outside  the  farm  are 
fed).  One  of  the  most  effective  methods  of  increasing  the  value  of 
manure  is  reinforcement  with  phosphorus.  The  use  of  320  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  with  eight  tons  of  manure,  at  the  Ohio  experiment  sta- 
tion has  increased  the  yields  of  corn  6.2  bushels;  of  wheat,  3.3  bushels, 
and  of  clover  hay,  413  pounds. 

The  effects  of  fertilizer  are  not  always  confined  to  an  increase  in 
yield.  Quality,  maturity  and  composition  are  other  important  effects, 
concerning  which,  however,  little  is  known  under  Corn  Belt  conditions. 
The  physiological  effects  of  small  amounts  of  plant  food,  applied  at 
various  times  in  the  groAvth  of  the  plant,  have  yet  to  be  studied.  The 
effects  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  are  not  so  simple  as  are 
commonly  supposed.  At  the  Wisconsin  station,  small  amounts  of  fer- 
tilizers applied  in  the  hill  for  corn  have  given  better  results  than  larger 
amounts  broadcast.  The  use  of  fertilizer  in  the  hill  is  also  thought  to 
increase  the  salt  concentration  of  the  corn  sap  sufficiently  to  eual)]e  it 
to  withstand  a  lower  temperature  than  unfertilized  corn.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per  acre  in  Ihe  hill  at  time  of  plantinu'  the 
corn  has  uiven  good  results  in  ^lissouri. 


'Illinois  Soil  Report  No.  24. 


THE  RELATION  OF  SOILS  TO  CORN  39 

Tlie  following  is  an  outline  of  what  seems  at  present  to  be  the  most 
logical  program  for  soil  improvement  involving  the  use  of  fertilizing 
materials  and  with  particular  reference  to  the  corn  crop : 

1.  The  growing  of  legumes  at  least  once  in  a  four  or  five-year  rotation, 
preceded,  when  necessary,  by  liming,  for  supplying  the  bulk  of  the  nitrogen 
and  for  liberating  from  the  soil  some  of  the  potassium  required. 

2.  The  conservation  of  manure,  and  application  on  the  ground  preced- 
ing corn. 

3.  The  use  of  small  amounts  of  fertilizer  used  in  the  most  efficient  man- 
ner (probably  in  the  hill  at  planting  time),  for  the  physiological  effects  on 
growth. 

4.  The  use  of  larger  amounts  of  fertilizer  on  the  small  grain  crops  of 
the  rotation  as  a  basic  treatment  in  the  maintenance  of  fertility,  and  for  the 
residual    effect   on    legumes. 


CHAPTER  9 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SEED  BED 

A    FIR]\I  seed  bed  with  a  mellow  surface  and  all  trash  cut  up  finely 

and  covered  should  be  the  aim  of  every  grower  in  the  preparation 

of  a  seed  bed  for  corn.     There  is  no  danger  of  doing  too  much  work. 

During  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  weeds  can  be  killed  more  easily 

and  cheaply  than  later  in  the  season  by  cultivation. 

Corn  is  planted  on  ground  that  has  been  in  corn,  small  grain  or  sod 
the  previous  year.  In  the  corn  belt,  it  is  estimated  that  about  35  per 
cent  of  the  corn  is  planted  on  corn  stalk  ground,  45  per  cent  on  small 
grain  stubble  and  20  per  cent  on  sod  ground.  Therefore,  three  different 
general  methods  of  seed  bed  preparation  are  necessary. 

Preparing  Corn  Stalk  Ground 

On  corn  stalk  ground,  it  is  the  general  custom  to  break  the  stalks 
as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible  with  a  railroad  iron,  harrow  or  heavy 
plank.     The  stalks  are  cut  l\v  disking  Avjth   a   well   ^■harpen(Ml   disk   or 


Disking  the  corn  stalks. 


stalk  cutter.     The  ground  is  usually  disked  once  to  cut  up  trash.  ]m\- 
verize  the  soil,  level  the  ground,  and  kill  the  weeds. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SEED  BED  41 

The  practice  of  burning-  corn  stalks  is  not  so  common  as  formerly. 
Agitation  against  this  method,  the  lowering-  of  the  fertility  in  many 
fields  because  of  continual  cropping  and  the  realization  of  the  value  of 
crop  residues  turned  under  have  reduced  the  practice  to  a  minimum. 
When  corn  stalks  are  burned,  there  is  a  loss  of  organic  matter  not  only 
in  the  stalks  but  also  in  the  soil.  There  are  cases  of  rank  stalk  growth 
that  justify  burning  the  stalks. 

Next,  the  ground  should  be  plowed  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring, 
and  shallow — four  to  five  inches.  Rarely  in  the  Corn  Belt  is  the  corn 
husked  early  enough  to  allow  fall  plowing.  Corn  stubble,  corn  cut  for 
fodder  or  silage,  may  be  either  fall  or  spring  plowed.  Spring  plowing 
is  liest  done  early  and  shallow,  in  order : 

1.  To  give  trash  time  to  decay. 

2.  To  give  the  seed  bed  a  chance  to  settle. 

3.  To  give  weeds  time  to  start  so  that  they  may  be  killed  before  planting. 

4.  To  prevent  loss  of  moisture  before  planting. 

5.  To  give  thorough  preparation  of  the  ground. 

Each  half  day's  plowing  should  be  harrowed  in  the  direction  of  the 
plowing  with  a  spike-tooth  harrow,  (1)  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
clods  and  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation,  and  (2)  to  level  the  surface 
and  make  disking  easier.  Final  preparation  of  seed  bed  should  be  done 
just  before  planting. 

Ordinary  five-inch  plowing  seems  to  be  satisfactory  in  the  Corn 
Belt.  It  is  always  advisable,  however,  to  do  as  thorough  a  job  of  plow- 
ing as  possible.     The  following  points  should  be  kept  in  mind : 

1.  The  furrows  should  be  straight  as  possible. 

2.  A  roundish  furrow  top  with  no  breaks  or  depressions  is  desirable. 

3.  All  trash  should  be  deeply  covered. 

4.  The  furrows  should  be  of  the  same  width. 

5.  A  uniform  depth  of  furrow  is  desirable. 

6.  The  plows  should  be  in  and  out  evenly  at  the  ends. 

7.  The  back  furrow  should  be  raised  slightly  and  all  trash  covered. 

Before  planting,  the  seed  bed  should  be  disked  and  harrowed  thor- 
oughly for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  To  kill  weeds. 

2.  To  settle  the  seed  bed. 

3.  To  pulverize  the  soil. 

4.  To  level  the  seed  bed. 

If  disked  but  once,  the  land  should  be  disked  across  the  plowing. 
Harrowing  should  be  done  diagonally  to  or  across  the  disking. 

Preparing  Small  Grain  Stubble 

Small  grain  stubble  may  be  plowed  in  either  the  fall  or  spring. 
Disking  before  plowing  is  a  good  practice.  In  the  Corn  Belt,  there  is 
more  time  to  fall  plow.  The  most  important  advantage  of  fall  plowing 
is  that  it  puts  the  farmer  in  control  of  his  spring  work,  aiding  him  espe- 


42 


(^ORX  AND  CORN-GROWING 


cially  in  <iettin^'  his  ('orn  planted  without  delay.  Those  who  have  larjie 
areas  to  plow  in  the  spring  I'or  corn  usually  are  late  with  corn  planting. 
Moreover,  a  few  insects  and  their  eggs  are  destroyed  by  disturbing  them 
late  in  the  fall.  Other  than  these  two,  there  are  no  advantages  of  fall 
ploAving  over  spring  plowing. 


Good  plowing. 


Fall  plowing  of  stubble  ground  should  be  done  to  a  depth  not  to 
exceed  six  inches.  It  should  be  disked  early  in  the  spring,  to  hold 
moisture  and  to  start  weeds.  Before  planting,  the  field  should  be  disked 
and  harrowed  enough  to  give  a  level,  fine,  well-firmed  seed  bed.  Rolling 
with  a  corrugated  roller  is  desirable  on  light  types  of  soil.  Spring  plow- 
ing of  stubble  ground  should  be  done  early  and  shallow,  not  more  than 
four  inches  deep.  Harrow  immediately,  and  disk  and  harrow  to  ]Mit 
the  ground  in  shape. 

Preparing  Sod  Ground 

There  are  more  advantages  in  plowing  clover,  timothy  or  blue  grass 
sod  for  corn  in  the  fall  than  stubble  ground.  Sweet  clover  sod  after 
one  year's  growth  is  an  exception.  It  should  be  spring  plowed  in  order  to 
keep  down  volunteer  growth.  It  is  advisable  to  plow  other  sods  late  in  the 
fall  to  allow  for  a  maximum  growth  of  pasture  or  green  manure.  Fall 
plowed  sod  is  far  easier  to  Avork  than  spring  plowed  sod.  Fall  plowing 
of  sod  reduces  the  damage  done  to  corn  bv  drouth  the  following  season. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SEED  BED 


43 


In  addition,  late  fall  plowing  will  destroy  many  cut-worms,  wire-worms 
and  other  insects  which  are  more  noticeable  after  sod.  Blue  grass  sod 
should  be  plowed  shallow,  and  clover  sod  deep,  because  of  the  difference 
in  rate  of  decay.  It  is  best  to  allow  the  fall-plowed  ground  to  lie  rough 
over  the  winter,  but  it  must  be  worked  down  early  in  the  spring  and 
otherwise  carefully  managed.  If  spring  plowed,  sod  ground  should  be 
disked  first,  plowed  early  and  shallow,  and  then  disked  and  harrowed 
thoroughly.     After  spring  plowing  of  sod  ground,  double  disking  with 


Harrow  each  half  day's  plowing. 

cross  disking  is  necessary.  The  amount  of  work  required  to  put  the 
ground  in  good  shape  for  corn  will  depend  on  the  condition  of  the  sod 
and  the  time  of  breaking. 

Wild  grass  sod  is  harder  to  work  than  clover  and  timothy  sod,  and 
IS  much  slower  to  decay.  This  kind  of  sod  should  be  plowed  in  the  early 
summer,  if  possible.  Deep  breaking,  four  to  six  inches,  should  be  done, 
and  the  furrow  slice  should  be  turned  over  flat.  Shallow,  })lowing,  two 
to  four  inches,  followed  by  "backsetting"  (second  plowing)  about  two 
inches  deeper,  after  the  sod  has  rotted,  is  a  desirable  method  for  tough 
sod.  In  either  case,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly  packed  and  disked 
to  put  the  seed  bed  in  good  condition  for  corn. 

Standard  Day's  Work 

The  amount  of  work  done  in  a  ten-hour  day  on  average  C'orn  Belt 
farms  (based  on  1922  Yearbook,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture )  is  as  follows : 


44  COKX  AXI)  COUN  GROWING 

Plowiiisi'  witli  horses: 

Acres. 

Walking,  14-inch,  one  man,  two  horses 1.9 

Sulky,  14-inch,  one  man,  four  horses 2.6 

Gang,  24-inch    one  man,  four  horses 4.1 

Gang,  24-inch,  one  man,  six  horses 4.9 

PloAvin<i'  witli  tractor: 

Two-plow  6.7 

Three-plow  S.2 

Four-plow 10.4 

HarroAvinu'  with  horses: 

Sixteen-foot  spike-tooth,  one  man,  four  horses 38. 7 

Disking  with  horses: 

Eight-foot    single    disk,    well-packed    land,    one    man,    four 

horses  17.1 

Eight-foot  single  disk,  freshly  plowed  land,  one   man,  four 

horses  15.2 


CHAPTER  10 
PLANTING  CORN 

'T^IIERE   are  three  general  methods  of  planting-  corn:      (1)    surface 

planting,  (2)  listing,  (;3)  furrow  opening. 

Because  of  the  weed  factor,  a  large  percentage  of  the  corn  in  the 
Corn  Belt  is  surface  checked  on  a  well-prepared  seed  bed  by  the  use  of 
the  two-row  corn  planter.  Surface  planted  corn  is  usually  checked — 
planted  in  hills,  to  permit  cross  cultivation.  The  check  is  made  by  a 
knotted  wire  which  regulates  the  drop  of  the  seed. 

Types  of  Check-Row  Planters 

The  i)lanters  that  are  used  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  type  of  ]ilanter  plate,  as  follows:     (1)  edge  drop  cumu- 


5i- 

\_^ 

^H 

■BfeH 

1 

■II 

^^^B 

\   ■ 

H 

■ 

K 

^^^^^^■^-^^^mT^ 

^^^S 

^s^^^^^ 

n^^H^l^^ 

:^^| 

ipl 

^ 

Corn  planting.    The  horses  have  just  been  turned  around  at  the  end  of  the  row, 
and  the  marker  has  not  yet  been  dropped. 


lative,  (2)  flat  drop  cumulative,  (3)  full  hill  drop.  Corn  planter  tests 
by  C.  O.  Reed,  at  the  Illinois  station,  indicate  that  deep,  rather  narrow 
kernels  of  the  Reid  type,  when  well  sorted  with  a  grader,  were  planted 
with  equal  accuracy  by  both  edge  and  flat  drop  types  of  planter  plates. 
Tests  with  other  varieties  showed  an  advantage  for  the  flat  drop  over 
the  edge  drop.     In  every  case,  the  full  hill  drop  proved  to  be  20  to 


46 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


30  per  cent  less  accurate  than  the  other  two  types.  The  full  hill  drop 
had  a  tendency  to  plant  about  15  per  cent  of  the  hills  Avith  four  kernels 
and  a  few  hills  with  five  kernels,  when  three  were  desired. 

The  planter  should  be  tested  as  to  its  rejrularity  in  dropping-  the 
desired  number  of  kernels.  This  testino-  may  be  done  on  a  clean,  hard 
surface  by  tripping  the  planter  by  hand.  Planters  are  provided  with 
a  series  of  plates  made  to  drop  different  numbers  of  kernels  of  a  given 
size.  The  process  of  selecting  the  plate  that  will  drop  the  desired  num- 
ber of  kernels  in  each  hill  is  called  calibration.  It  is  desirable  to  have 
a  planter  drop  the  required  number  of  kernels  in  at  least  ninety  out  of 


Moving  and  stretching  planter  wire  befo'"e  starting  a  new  row. 


one  hundred  hills.  If  the  planter  fails  to  drop  the  kernels  correctly, 
the  plates  should  be  changed  or  filed  until  they  will  drop  the  required 
number.  The  plate  adjusted  to  each  lot  of  corn  should  be  put  with  that 
lot,  to  avoid  any  confusion  at  planting  time.  Place  the  seed  in  gunny 
sacks.  Put  less  than  two-thirds  of  a  bushel  in  a  sack,  and  hang  it  in 
a  dry  place  until  ready  to  plant. 

Method  of  Checking  Surface  Planted  Corn 
It  is  not  difficult  to  get  checked  corn  straight  both  ways  in  a  field 
that  is  not  irregular  in  shape  or  hilly.  A  first-class  job  of  checking 
corn  consists  in  planting  the  rows  absolutely  straight  both  ways.  It 
requires  an  energetic  team,  well  matched  as  to  disposition  and  rate  of 
walking,  and  a  driver  who  understands  how  to  drive  and  to  set  a  check 
wire.  To  make  the  rows  straight  in  either  direction,  it  is  necessary 
to  start  right  and  keep  right.  The  rows  should  be  planted  the  long 
way  of  the  field,  and  work  should  commence  on  a  straight  side. 


PLANTING  CORN  47 

The  end  of  the  reeled  wire  must  be  fastened  to  the  iron  stake  and 
the  latter  fastened  in  the  corner  of  the  field  where  the  work  is  to  be 
commenced.  The  planter,  carrying  the  spool  of  wire,  is  driven  to  the 
other  side  or  end  of  the  field,  unreeling  the  Avire.  After  laying  the  wire 
across  the  field,  it  should  be  stretched  reasonably  tight  and  fastened  at 
the  end  of  the  field.  Here,  it  is  connected  with  the  planter,  and  two 
rows  are  planted  with  one  trip  across  the  field.  At  the  end  of  the  field, 
the  wire  is  released  and  the  planter  turned  around.  At  this  end  of  the 
field,  the  wire  is  moved  over  twice  the  distance  between  rows.  The  wire 
should  be  stretched  to  the  same  tension  every  time  it  is  set  and  then 
connected  with  the  planter.  This  process  is  repeated  until  the  field  is 
planted  and  the  wire  wound  on  the  reel. 

In  an  irregular  shaped  field,  where  the  rows  lengthen  or  shorten, 
as  the  work  progresses,  it  is  best  to  set  stakes  at  the  irregular  end,  set- 
ting one  every  forty  feet,  at  a  point  touched  by  a  button  on  the  wire, 
the  series  of  stakes  representing  a  cross  row.  In  this  way,  the  operator 
may  keep  all  the  cross  rows  straight,  setting  his  wire  so  that  a  certain 
marked  button  is^  constantly  in  direct  line  with  the  row  of  stakes.  In 
case  of  surface  irregularities,  such  as  ridges  or  depressions,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  make  the  rows  perfectly  straight. 

Small  fields  may  be  })lanted  with  hand  planters,  called  "jobbers." 
These  devices  are  used  on  spring  plowed  native  sod  ground,  stumpy  or 
stony  fields,  and  test  plots.  They  do  satisfactory  work  and  their  use 
insures  uniform  dropping  and  covering.  The  field  is  marked  off  both 
ways  with  a  marker  and  the  kernels  are  dropped  at  the  intersections. 
With  a  three-row  sled  marker,  thirty  to  forty  acres  may  be  marked 
both  ways  in  a  day. 

Surface  Planting — Drilled 

The  other  common  way  of  putting  in  surface  planted  corn  is  drill- 
ing. Drilled  corn  is  planted  in  rows  that  can  be  cultivated  only  one 
way.  Experiments  indicate  that  there  is  no  appreciable  difference  be- 
tween the  average  yields  of  drilled  corn  and  that  planted  in  checks 
where  the  same  number  of  kernels  are  planted  per  acre  and  the  corn  is 
kept  free  of  weeds.  One  kernel  dropped  every  fourteen  inches  in  the  row 
is  the  drilled  corn  equivalent  to  three  kernels  per  hill  in  corn  checked 
three  feet  six  inches.  Drilled  corn  can  not  be  cross-cultivated  except 
when  young,  and  then  only  with  the  harrow  or  weeder.  On  newly-broken 
sod,  drilled  corn  may  be  kept  fairly  clean,  but  in  the  case  of  most  Corn 
Belt  land,  drilled  corn  becomes  very  weedy.  The  ordinary  corn  planter 
is  commonly  used  for  drilling,  but  the  grain  drill  with  certain  spouts 
stopped  is  extensively  used  on  the  western  edge  of  the  Corn  Belt. 

It  is  advantageous  to  drill  corn  under  the  following  conditions : 

1.  When  the  field  is  hilly,  because  drilling  with  the  rows  at  right-angles 
to  the  slope  of  the  hill  will  keep  down  soil  erosion. 

2.  When  planting  on  sod  ground,  because  it  is  usually  free  of  weeds. 

3.  When  planting  corn  for  fodder  or  silage  on  clean  ground,  because 
drilled  corn  cuts  more  easily. 


48  CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

Listing 

Listing  is  practiced  in  western  Kansas,  in  western  Nebraska,  and 
in  parts  of  northwestern  Missouri  and  western  Iowa.  Listing  is  based 
on  tlie  principle  given  in  the  paragrai)h  on  depth  of  planting,  on  page 
.10.  It  is  a  common  method  in  dry,  windy,  and  light  soil  areas.  It  is 
not  a  general  practice  and  is  an  undesirable  practice  on  shallow  soils 
and  poorly  drained  ones.  Listed  corn  has  the  following  advantages  over 
surface  planted  corn: 

1.     It  withstands  drouth  better. 
I         2.     It  is  not  so  easily  blown  down. 

3.  It  is  a  cheaper  method  of  planting. 

4.  It  is  a  quicker  method,  because  it  combines  plowing  and  planting  in 
one  operation. 

5.  It  gives  higher  yields  under  some  conditions. 

Listing  is  the  process  of  throwing  open  a  series  of  furroAvs  across 
a  field  by  means  of  a  specially  devised  plow  provided  with  a  double 
mold-board  that  throws  the  soil  both  ways.  The  furrows  are  opened 
to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven  inches,  and  are  spaced  the  usual  width  of  the 
corn  rows.  The  corn  is  planted  in  the  bottom  of  these  furrows.  ^lost 
listers  have  a  drill  attachment  so  that  the  corn  may  be  planted  as  the 
field  is  plowed  by  the  lister.  Listed  corn  is  rarely  checked.  There 
are  two  ways  of  listing — single  and  double. 

The  most  common  method  is  single  listing.  The  ground  is  un- 
touched during  the  winter  and  until  planting  time.  Then  the  grounJ 
should  be  disked  once  or  twice  to  kill  weeds,  but  often  the  lister  is  the 
only  implement  used  in  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  It  covers  the 
entire  surface  between  the  rows  with  loose  dirt,  but  underneath  this  cov- 
ering of  loo.se  earth  is  a  ridge  of  hard,  unbroken  soil.  Such  a  prepara- 
tion does  not  present  the  most  favorable  condition  However,  it  is  a 
rapid  and  cheap  method  of  planting,  as  the  one  operation  prepares  the 
ground  and  plants  the  seed.     Most  listed  corn  is  planted  in  this  way. 

Double  listing  is  a  slight  modification  of  the  above  method.  The 
only  difference  from  single  listing  is  that  the  ground  is  listed  twice. 
The  ridges  which  are  left  by  the  first  operation  are  opened  and  thrown 
into  the  furrows  by  the  second.  This  tillage  completely  loosens  the  sur- 
face soil  and  leaves  it  in  much  better  condition  than  does  single  listing. 
In  many  cases  the  first  listing  is  done  in  the  fall  and  the  field  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  that  condition  until  spring,  at  which  time  the  ridges  are 
opened  with  the  lister.  The  second  listing  and  the  ]ilanting  may  be 
done  at  the  same  time. 

Furrow  Opening 

A  furrow  opener  consi.sts  of  a  pair  of  disks  or  shovels  so  arranged 

as  to  open  a  small  furrow.     One  set  of  these  disks  or  shovels  is  fastened 

to  each  planter  shoe  of  an  ordinary  corn  planter.     They  are  set  deep 

or  shallow  by  regulating  the  lever  on   the  planter.     This  method   of 


PLANTING  C'ORN 


49 


planting  possesses  practically  all  the  advantages  obtained  by  listing 
because  the  seed  is  planted  in  a  furrow  similar  to  listed  corn.  In  order 
to  use  this  attachment  on  the  planter  successfully,  the  ground  must  be 
prepared  as  for  surface  planted  corn.  This  method  is  used  extensively 
in  the  listed  corn  areas. 

Table  III — Yield  of  Corn  as  Determined  by  the  Method  of  Preparing  the 

Seed  Bed,  (Maryville,  Nodaway  County)  Missouri — 

1911  to  1922,  Inclusive 


-?^ 

u  u 

>  a 

a>  a 

Method  of  Preparing 
Seed  Bed 

Yield 

in  Bushels  Per  Acre 

ear  av 
s  per 
rease 
3  plan 

^•3 

a^ 
.-■s 

1911!1912|1913|1914|1915il916|1917il919|1920  Z^  < 
Groulid~^lowed,    crop    sur- !         |         |         I         I         I         I         I 

face    planted    .....|  49.9|  62.8|  14.5|  44.9|  41.1|  46.3|  75.0|  78.5  51.7  51.61 

Ground  plowed,  crop  plant-  |         I         |         |         I         |         |         I 

ed  in  shallow  furrows..]  55.6|  76.5!  18-6|  51.4|  53.0  60.9|  81.9|  78.4 


51.7 
55.2 


59.0 
57.6 
60.2 
64.2 
58.5 


7.4 

6.0 

8.6 

12.6 


Double    listed    I  56.9]  73.0J  18.2|  54.6|  44.3|  53.8|  68.4|  84.4|  54.7 

Double  disked,  single  listed..|  67.4]  75.5i  36.7|  54.1|  42.5]  56.7i  80.2|  75.2]  53.2 

No  disking,  single  listed |  60.3|  80.0|  43. 1|  58.1|  45.2]  59.2|  84.2|  91.9|  55.9 

Average  |  58.0|  73.5  28.2|  52.6|  45^|  55^|  77^|  81^|  54.1 

Inches  of  rainfall  for  the  |  III  j  1 
months  of  June,  July  I  |  |  I  I  I 
and  August  |  5.71|  6^1  8^|  6^  31^|  10^  J^|^  5^8 

Rate  of  Planting 

Thickness  of  planting  depends  on  variety,  soil,  latitude  and  pur- 
])ose  for  which  grown.  Also  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  in  the  cen- 
tral C'orn  Belt  only  70  per  cent  of  the  kernels  planted  produce  stalks. 
I\Iost  growers  in  the  Corn  Belt  plan  to  get  about  three  kernels  in  the 
hill,  the  rows  being  three  feet  six  inches  apart  both  ways.  This  dis- 
tance between  rows  is  more  or  less  standard  for  planters,  check  wires 
and  cultivators.  In  drilled  corn,  the  distance  between  the  rows  is  the 
same  as  in  checked  corn,  and  the  plants  should  average  ten  to  fourteen 
inches  apart  in  the  row. 

On  rich  clover  land  or  sod,  with  corn  planted  for  fodder  or  silage, 
or  with  small  varieties,  checking  at  the  rate  of  five  kernels  to  the  hill 
and  drilling  at  the  rate  of  one  kernel  every  eight  or  nine  inches  often 
gives  the  best  yields.  However,  even  on  rich  land,  corn  planted  at  the 
rate  of  three  kernels  per  hill  produces  ears  which  average  about  50  per 
cent  heavier  than  the  ears  produced  when  five  kernels  per  hill  are  plant- 
ed. Unless  machine  buskers  are  used,  the  labor  of  husking  is  so  in- 
creased by  thick  planting  that  it  is  doubtful  if  five-kernel  planting  is 
warranted  on  even  the  richest  soils  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Corn  Belt. 
On  poor  land,  with  tall  growing  varieties,  two  or  three  kernels  per  hill 
unquestionably  give  the  best  results.  Planting  for  silage  is  discussed 
in  Chapter  15. 


50  CORN  AND  CORX-GROWING 

Table  IV 

Followinp-  are  the  results  obtained  on  soils  much  richer  than  the 
averap'e  with  different  rates  of  planting-  in  different  sections  of  Iowa 
for  an  average  of  1920,  1921  and  1922: 

NORTHERN  SECTION 

No.  kernels  Average  Number  Stalks  Bushels  Per 

planted  at  Harvest  Acre 

2    1.78    53.39 

3    2.60    66.50 

4    3.16    71.77 

5    3.89    74.56 

NORTH-CENTRAL  SECTION 

2    1.74    53.49 

3    2.51    65.73 

4    3.14    67.78 

5    3.86    68.89 

SOUTH-CENTRAL  SECTION 

2    1.64    58.53 

3    2.34 70.42 

4    3.04    74.07 

5    3.65    74.66 

SOUTHERN  SECTION 

2    1.76    49.49 

3    2.35    60.75 

4    2.35    60.75 

5    3.68    59.18 

A  bushel  of  56  pounds  of  seed  will  plant  about  seven  acres  where 
hills  of  three  kernels  are  three  feet  six  inches  apart  both  ways. 

Depth  of  Planting 

No  matter  how  deep  the  kernels  are  planted,  they  will  send  out 
their  permanent  roots  an  inch  or  two  beneath  the  surface.  In  listed 
corn,  the  permanent  roots  are  covered  to  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches 
after  their  position  has  been  definitely  determined  by  the  emergence  of 
the  young  corn  plant  above  ground.  Of  course,  other  permanent  roots 
will  also  come  out  from  the  higher  nodes  which  are  surrounded  by  soil 
as  a  result  of  lister  cultivation.  In  reality,  surface  planted  corn  sends 
out  its  permanent  roots  (not  brace  roots)  from  its  bottom  two  or  three 
nodes,  which  are  located  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  whereas, 
listed  corn  has  the  advantage  of  more  nodes  below  ground  and  a  larger, 
deeper  root  system. 

The  kernel  should  be  planted  only  deep  enough  to  be  well  surround- 
ed with  moist  soil,  usually  not  deeper  than  two  inches.  Corn  planted 
too  deeply  will  rot  in  the  soil  or  the  great  effort  of  the  seedling  to  emerge 
will  stunt  the  growth.  Where  the  seed  bed  has  been  thoroughly  worked 
uniformity  of  depth  of  planting  is  obtained.  If  it  is  necessary  to  plant 
deeply  because  of  dry  weather,  light  soil  or  wind,  it  is  advisable  to  use 
the  lister  or  furrow  opener  planter. 


PLANTING  CORN  51 

Time  of  Planting 

Corn  planting  usually  begins  when  the  normal  mean  temperature 
reaches  56  degrees  F.,  and  the  bulk  of  the  planting  is  done  Avhen  the 
normal  mean  temperature  reaches  61  degrees  F. — about  the  middle  of 
May  in  the  central  Corn  Belt.  Earlier  planting  is  more  difficult  to 
keep  clean,  and  often  causes  a  loss  of  stand  due  partly  to  insects,  but 
chiefly  to  rotting  of  the  seed  and  increased  susceptibility  to  disease. 
Later  planting  reduces  yields  and  gives  more  opportunity  for  frost  in- 
jury in  the  fall.  Whatever  the  time  of  planting,  the  seed  bed  should  be 
well  prepared  and  danger  of  severe  spring  frosts  should  be  over,  although 
liuht  spring  frosts  do  not  injure  the  young  seedlings,  especially  under 
dry  conditions.  In  fact,  while  a  severe  freeze  will  destroy  that  part  of 
the  young  seedling  which  is  above  ground,  it  is  astonishing  how  often 
a  new  vigorous  growth  is  sent  up  from  the  roots.  The  practical  optimum 
date  of  planting  corn  in  the  central  Corn  Belt,  one  year  with  another, 
is  May  15.  Planting  before  May  1  or  after  May  25  usually  gives  re- 
duced yields. 

Replanting  Corn 

Loss  of  stand  is  usually  due  to  (1)  bad  weather  conditions,  such  as 
frost  or  heavy  rains;  (2)  i)oor  seed;  (3)  birds,  insects  or  rodents;  (4) 
poor  preparation  of  the  seed  bed;  (5)  planting  too  deeply,  or  (6)  plant- 
ing too  early.  Every  precaution  should  be  made  to  overcome  the.se 
conditions.  If,  nevertheless,  there  is  less  than  a  three-fourths  stand, 
the  entire  field  should  be  replanted.  A  few-  missing  or  one-stalk  hills 
may  be  planted  by  hand  with  the  same  or  an  earlier  variety,  but  this 
is  not  .so  very  practical.  If  the  loss  of  stand  occurs  too  late  for  replant- 
ing, it  is  best  to  disk  the  field  or  any  poor  part  of  it  and  sow  to  an  emer- 
gency hay  crop,  such  as  Sudan  grass  or  sorghum  cane. 

Acres  Planted  Per  Day 

According  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Year- 
book for  1922,  the  standard  number  of  acres  planted  in  a  ten-hour  day 
is  about  as  follows : 

Two-row  planter,  S^/^^-foot  rows,  one  man,  two  horses 14.0 

By  hand,  3%-foot  rows,  one  man  4.5 


CHAPTER  11 


CULTIVATING  CORN 


'"pHE  average  Corn  Belt  farmer  with  fifty  acres  of  corn  spends  :'>(J0 
hours  of  man  labor  and  600  hours  of  horse  labor  cultivating  corn. 
At  the  same  time,  his  team  walks  about  470  miles.  This  takes  more  time 
than  anj'  other  farm  operation  except  corn  husking.  IMoreover.  corn 
cultivation  conflicts  to  some  extent  with  haying  and  oat  harvest.  The 
principle  of  cultivation  followed  by  most  farmers  is  to  cultivate  the 
crop  as  many  times  as  possible  before  the  corn  gets  too  high  to  work  in. 
But  they  should  keep  in  mind  the  reasons  for  cultivating  and  the  cheap- 
est, easiest  ways  of  accomplishing  the  desired  results. 

Chief  Reasons  for  Cultivating 

A  large  number  of  corn  cultivation  experiments  have  been  conduct- 
ed throughout  corn  producing  states.  With  but  few  exceptions,  the 
tests  show  that  in  the  cultivation  of  corn,  the  removal  of  weeds  is  the 
all-important  object.  The  Kansas,  Illinois,  Minnesota  and  ^Missouri 
stations  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  have  obtained 
conclusive  results  showing  the  great  importance  of  the  weed  factor.  Corn 
hoed  by  hand  to  prevent  weed  growth,  without  stirring  the  soil,  has 
yielded  as  much  as  corn  thoroughly  cultivated.  As  an  example  of  such 
experiments,  those  at  the  Kansas  station,  conducted  upon  a  heavy  silt 
loam,  are  represented  in  Table  V,  which  gives  the  average  yields  of  corn 
variously  cultivated  in  1914-1921,   inclusive. 

Table  V— Method  of  Cultivation  Test  Summary,  1914-1921 


11914 


1915 


Ordinary  cultivation |  13.0| 

Ordinary  cultivation  | 
plus  one-horse  culti-  j 
vator,   as   per  judg-  | 

ment |  13.3 

Ordinary  cultivation  | 
plus  one-horse  culti 


).1|  70.0 


57.3 


I'ator  every  10  days..|11.0|  52 
No  cultivation,  weeds 


"I9i6 


1917      I 


o  Oi 


I         I 

19191192011921 
I         I         I 


43.91  45;3I  44.4 


44.51  46.5 


39.0 


34.9127.7 


33.5 


26.1 


24.31 


74.81  60.11  47.0 


77.5i 


76.3 


,  65.51  42.7|  46.1|  41.51  44.8|  34.4 

u    L-uiiivitinJii,     wecuo    I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 

scraped |    9.2|  58.6|  71.4|  44.0|  46.8|  45.0|  40.6|  29.4|  25.7|  73 


65. 


45.8 
46.6 


Where  weeds  have  been  removed  by  hand -hoeing,  the  yields  of  corn 
have  been  a])out  the  same  as  where  the  corn  has  been  thoroughly  culti- 


(TLTIVATIXG  CORN 


53 


vated.  Thus  with  iuter-tilled  crops,  when  the  fields  are  free  of  weeds, 
it  is  not  profitable  to  cultivate,  unless  the  soil  is  of  such  type  as  to 
bake  and  crack.  The  high  cost  of  tillage  may  be  lowered  by  reducing 
the  amount  and  depth  of  cultivating. 


Other  Reasons  for  Cultivating 
At  various  periods  throughout  the  history  of  corn  cultivation,  several 
other  beneficial  results  have  been  attributed  to  proper  cultivation.     Some 
of  the  common  reasons  are  to : 

1.  Conserve  moisture. 

2.  Make  plant  food  more  available. 

3.  Retard   soil   erosion. 

4.  Mix  the  soil  constituents. 

5.  Improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

6.  Germinate  dormant  weed  seeds. 

7.  Give  the  plants  a  loose  soil  in  which  the  roots  will  grow  better. 

8.  Cover  organic  matter. 

9.  Control  the  soil  temperature. 

Under  some  conditions  any  or  all  of  these  desirable  factors  may  be 
accomplished  to  a  certain  extent.  But,  as  previously  pointed  out,  the 
killing  of  weeds  appears  to  be  the  only  factor  that  has  a  great  effect 
on  the  crop  that  year  or  following  years.  Soils  lose  large  quantities  of 
soil  water,  but  this  loss  is  due  chiefly  to  utilization  by  the  growing  crop, 
transpiration  from  growing  weeds,  or  internal  evaporation  and  escape 


54 


("ORX  AND  CORX-GROWING 


of  water  vapor.  Only  methods  of  tillag:e  which  will  prevent  loss  from 
these  sources  are  of  value  so  far  as  the  water  in  the  soil  is  concerned. 
Excessive  run-off  may  be  retarded  and  the  absorption  of  water  by  the 
soil  may  occasionally  be  aided  by  proper  methods  of  surface  tillage. 

Types  of  Cultivators 

There  are  a  large  number  of  corn  cultivators  in  use  today.  Dif- 
ferent ones  are  of  special  value  for  different  conditions  and  times  of 
cultivation.  However,  the  right  cultivator  should  be  used  at  the  right 
time  and  under  the  conditions  to  which  it  is  adapted.  Cultivators  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

1.  Shovel  cultivators — (a)  with  small  shovels;    (b)  with  large  shovels. 

2.  Surface  cultivators — blade  or  sweep. 

3.  Disk  cultivators — (a)   surface  planted  corn,   (b)  listed  corn. 

4.  Harrows — (a)    spike-tooth,   (b)   weeders. 

5.  Miscellaneous  cultivators — (a)  one-horse,  (b)  hand  hoe. 

The  first  three  classes  may  be  divided  again  according  to  whether 
they  are  of  the  one-row  or  two-row  type.  The  latter  are  becoming  com- 
mon. They  are  of  particular  advantage  on  large  areas  and  for  later 
cultivations.  The  two-row  cultivator  reduces  the  time  required  for 
cultivation  about  45  per  cent.     Care  must  be  employed  when  using  the 


Two-row  cultivator  with  duck-foot  shovels. 


two-row  cultivators  for  the  first  cultivation  and  in  crossing  checked 
corn.  Another  classification  may  be  made  according  to  whether  the 
cultivators  are  horse  or  power  drawn.  At  the  Missouri  station  it  re- 
(piired  forty-two  minutes  to  cultivate  three  inches  deep  an  acre  of  twelve- 
inch  corn  the  third  time  Avith  a  two-row  motor  cultivator.  The  cultiva- 
tion required  three-fourths  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  and  one-tenth  of  a 
quart  of  oil  for  each  acre. 

The  first  shovel  cultivators  were  large,  and  each  gang  of  the  ma- 
chine carried  only  one  shovel.     These  large  shovels  stirred  the  ground 


CULTIVATING  CORN  .35 

deeply  and  did  considerable  injury  to  the  root  system  of  the  crop.  The 
tendency  in  making  shovel  cultivators  has  been  toward  smaller  shovels 
with  more  of  them  on  each  gang  of  the  cultivator.  Small  shovels  are 
desirable  for  the  later  cultivations.  There  are  various  shapes  of  shov- 
els, such  as  the  duck-foot,  spearhead  and  the  common  or  rectangular 
(sometimes  called  bull-tongue). 

Surface  cultivators  are  characterized  by  long  sweeps  or  blades  that 
work  just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Surface  cultivators  are  of 
}iartieular  advantage  in  the  later  cultivations.  Many  corn  growers, 
therefore,  substitute  blades  for  shovels  on  their  cultivators  after  the 
second  cultivation.  Large  implement  concerns  state  that  surface  cul- 
tivators should  be  more  widely  used  on  loam  soils,  but  that  they  have 
grown  slowly  in  popularity  because  farmers  have  been  accustomed  by 
long  usage  to  the  shovel  type.  The  surface  cultivator  has  not  found 
favor  in  sections  of  heavy  clay  or  other  tight  soils.  It  is  an  excellent 
cultivator  with  which  to  fight  morning-glories,  Canada  thistles  and  sim- 
ilar types  of  weeds. 


The  weeder  or  harrow  gives  excellent  results  when  the  corn  is  small 
and  the  ground  is  not  baked. 

The  disk  cultivator  is  the  best  type  to  use  on  weedy,  grassy  and  sod 
ground.  The  disks  will  cut  heavy  growth  that  the  shovels  will  not 
work  in.     Most  cultivators  used  in  listed  corn  are  of  the  disk  type. 

Harrows  are  excellent  for  early  cultivation.  Many  weeds  may  be 
killed  and  a  large  amount  of  ground  cultivated  at  a  low  cost  with  the 
harrow.  Corn  may  be  harrowed  right  after  planting,  before  it  is  up, 
and  until  it  is  a  foot  high.  The  only  time  there  is  any  danger  of  injury 
to  the  corn  is  when  the  field  is  harrowed  at  the  time  the  plants  are  just 
coming  through  the  ground.  Harrowing  will  often  take  the  place  of  one 
ordinary  cultivation.  Also,  weeders  cover  a  large  amount  of  ground  and 
cultivate  corn  efficiently,  especially  when  the  corn  is  small. 

There  mav  be  times  after  the  corn  is  "laid  bv" — given  the  last 


56  CORX  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

ordinary  cultivation — when  additional  sino-le  hor.se  cultivation  is  bene- 
ficial. In  such  case,  a  special  type  of  one-horse  cultivator  may  be  used, 
or  a  mower  wheel  may  be  drapp-ed  through  the  field.  Hand  pulling- 
or  hoeing  of  persistent  weeds  after  the  corn  is  ''laid  by"  should  be 
l)raeticed. 

Table  VI — Implements  Used  in  Cultivating  Corn  (Illinois  Station) 

(Bushels  Per  Acre) 


I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I 
Implements  |1912|1913|1914|1915|1916|1917|1918|1919!1920|1921|  Av. 


Small   shovels   I  61.7[  47.51  44.3|  48.0]  33.2|  67.3 


Large    shovel    |  61.0|  45.2|  42.61  45.2|  29.1 

Tower  cultivator   i  64.0|  42.1i  43.l|  51.6  33.2 

Disk   cultivator   j  64.41  44.3!  46.71  48.8  35.6 


I  I  I  I  I  l_l l__l  I 

47. 2|  53.2|  36.9 


62.4 
67.1 
67.5 


47.51  57.8|  37.7 
50.2  53.91  38.1 


53.0 
54.0 
49.3 


49.2 
48.2 
49.3 


47. 2|  55. li  29.0]  56.8|  49.5 


Cultivation  Procedure 

The  first  cultivation  may  be  made  before  the  crop  is  up.  While 
the  harrow  is  more  commonly  u.sed,  some  farmers  prefer  to  "blind  plow," 
following  the  planter  marks  with  the  ordinary  cultivator  before  the 
corn  is  up.  Blind  plowing  is  desirable  in  fields  infested  with  quack 
grass  or  similar  weeds.  In  many  cases  farmers  neither  blind  plow  nor 
harrow,  but  begin  cultivation  with  the  ordinary  cultivator  after  the 
corn  is  about  four  inches  high. 

The  first  cultivation  is  always  in  the  same  direction  as  the  corn 
is  planted.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  young  plants  are  not  in- 
jured or  covered.  Either  stationary  or  rotating  shields  on  the  cidti- 
vator  Avill  help  to  protect  the  plants  from  being  covered  by  loose  soil. 
Plants  partly  or  entirely  covered  at  the  time  of  the  first  cultivation  are 
permanenth"  stunted  and  are  either  barren  or  produce  nubbins. 

The  cultivator  should  run  deeply  and  close  to  the  row  the  first 
time  over,  so  as  to  cover  weeds  in  the  hills.  The  kernel  contains  food 
on  which  the  plant  feeds  when  it  starts,  hence  the  roots  have  not  yet 
grown  out  Avhere  many  of  them  will  be  disturbed.  The  first  cultiva- 
tion is  the  most  important.  If  it  is  deep  and  close  to  the  corn  plants, 
it  helps  to  warm  the  soil,  destroys  weeds,  and  loosens  the  ground  so  thor- 
oughly that  the  later  plowings  are  easier. 

In  checked  corn  the  second  cultivation  is  usually  crosswise  of  the 
direction  the  corn  is  planted.  The  ease  or  difficulty  of  this  cultivation 
is  dependent  upon  how  accurately  the  corn  was  checked  in  planting. 

After  the  first  cultivation,  it  is  not  advisable  to  run  the  shovels 
too  deeply  or  too  close  to  the  hills.  Allow  them  to  throw  in  just  enough 
dirt  to  cover  weeds  in  the  hills.  A  month  after  planting,  the  roots  from 
hills,  side  by  side,  may  be  found  to  meet  each  other  between  the  corn 
rows  and  to  be  within  two  and  one-half  inches  of  the  top  of  the  ground 
six  inches  out  from  th(>  hills  of  corn.  Plowing  deeper  than  three  inches 
close  to  tile  liills  at  this  time  tears  niauv  roots  and  injures  the  com. 


CULTIVATING  CORN 


Methods  of  Cultivation 


In  general,  there  are  two  methods  of  cultivation,  (1)  level  culti- 
vation, (2)  hilled  or  ridged  cultivation.  Level  cultivation  is  best.  Com- 
pared to  the  ridged  type  of  cultivation  it  has  the  following  advantages : 

1.  Less  surface  is  exposed  for  evaporation. 

2.  Only  shallow  cultivation  is  required. 

3.  The  field  is  more  easily  prepared  for  the  next  crop. 

4.  Yields  are  greater. 

Depth  of  Cultivation 

Surface  culture,  which  means  stirring  the  soil  to  a  depth  not  greater 
than  four  inches  below  the  surface,  cultivates  without  pruning  or  in- 
juring the  roots  of  the  plant,  and  forms  a  mulch  on  the  surface.  Deep 
culture  conserves  as  much  soil  water  as  the  shallow  method,  but  in 
most  cases  the  yields  of  grain  from  shallow  tilled  fields  have  been  in 
excess  of  those  obtained  under  identical  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
from  deep-plowed  fields.  The  difference  usually  is  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  deep  culture  injures  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

How  Cultivation  Affects  Soil 

The  cultivation  must  be  suited  to  the  kind  of  soil.  If  a  field  is 
sandy  or  easy  to  work,  because  it  is  rich  in  organic  matter,  it  may  be 
plowed  from  the  beginning  with  a  surface  cultivator.  Wet,  heavy 
soils  should  be  given  deeper  cultivation  the  first  time  to  loosen  them  up 
and  dry  out  the  surface.  If  a  shovel  cultivator  is  used,  it  should  not 
run  as  deeply  the  second  time.  A  surface  cultivator  may  be  used  on 
heavy  soils  of  this  type  unless  there  have  been  heavy  rains  to  pack 
the  soil. 

Number  of  Times  to  Cultivate 

The  number  of  times  to  cultivate  corn  will  depend  upon  the  num- 
ber and  kind  of  weeds,  the  ground  in  w^hich  it  grows  and  the  climatic 
conditions.  Keep  the  corn  free  from  weeds,  and  try  to  keep  the  dirt 
on  top  loose — to  hold  moisture.  The  growth  of  weeds  in  many  corn 
fields  shows  that  such  fields  are  suffering  from  a  lack  of  cultivation. 
In  others  the  soil  is  baked  and  moisture  is  lost.  When  the  ground  gets 
too  dry  after  heavy  rains,  it  will  dry  and  crack  open.  These  cracks 
allow  the  moisture  to  escape  rapidly,  and  should  be  prevented  by  cul- 
tivation. After  the  corn  grows  tall,  its  foliage  shades  the  ground  from 
the  sun,  and  largely  prevents  both  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation 
and  the  growth  of  weeds.  Sometimes,  when  the  season  is  warm  and 
wet,  the  corn  may  grow  so  fast  it  is  only  cultivated  twice.  The  usual 
number  of  cultivations  in  the  Corn  Belt  is  four. 

Cultivation  of  Listed  Corn 

Disk  cultivators  are  commonly  used  to  cultivate  listed  corn.  The 
disks  are  set  to  cut  and  throw  out  the  weedv  fringe  the  first  time  over. 


58 


CORN  AND  (;ORX-GK()WINCt 


A  hooded  shield  is  used  to  protect  the  plants,  especially  the  first  time 
over.  Small  shovels  are  set  to  mulch  the  soil  in  the  furrow  close  to  the 
corn,  and  large  shovels  are  set  to  destroy  weeds  on  top  of  the  ridge. 
The  second  time  over,  the  corn  is  a  few  inches  high,  and  so  the  disks 


^W*  ;  »: 


w^^J^^H 


Lister  two-row  cultivator,  illustrating  method  of  throwing  dirt  away  from  the 
plants  in  the  furrow  the  first  time  over.  When  the  plants  are  larger,  the 
dirt  will  be  thrown  toward  them. 

are  set  to  throw  in,  filling  the  furrow.  The  shovels  are  set  to  destroy 
and  work  down  the  ridge.  The  disk  cultivator  is  used  two  or  three  times, 
depending  on  conditions.  Often  listed  corn  is  "laid  by"  with  an  ordi- 
nary shovel  cultivator.  Both  single-row  and  tAvo-row  lister  corn  culti- 
vators are  used. 

Ways  of  Reducing  Cost  of  Cultivation 

Harrow  and  disk  the  field  thoroughly  before  planting,  to  kill  weed 
growth  in  its  early  stages  and  to  make  the  seed  bed  firm.  If  most  of 
the  weeds  are  killed  before  the  crop  is  planted,  later  cultivations  may 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Good  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  will  lessen 
the  cost  of  cultivation.  The  use  of  the  harrow  or  weeder  for  early  cul- 
tivation is  one  of  the  most  important  labor  saving  practices.  Two-row 
cultivators  save  man  labor.  Remember  that  the  one  big  object  of  cul- 
tivation is  to  kill  weeds. 

Acres  Cultivated  Per  Day 

Under  Corn  Belt  conditions,  the  average  number  of  acres  cultivated 
in  a  ten-hour  day  is  about  as  follows : 

One-row  riding   (first  or  second  cultivation),  one  man,  two 

horses  5.5 

One-row  riding  (third  cultivation),  one  man,  two  horses 7.0 

Two-row  riding,  one  man,  three  or  four  horses 13.0 


CHAPTER  12 


WEEDS  OF  THE  CORN  FIELD 


'T*HE  wheat  crop  rusts,  the  oat  crop  lodges,  the  cotton  crop  has  its 
boll  weevil,  and  the  corn  crop  has  its  weeds.  Good  corn  prowin;i 
is  a  constant  battle  airainst  weeds,  and  the  w'eed  factor  is  a  large  one  in 
delermining  the  number  of  acres  of  corn  to  grow.  Weeds  deprive  corn 
of  both  moisture  and  plant  food. 

Although  weeds  are  one  of  the  worst  enemies  of  corn,  the  corn  field 
is  an  excellent  place  to  eradicate  Aveeds  that  have  become  a  pest  in  mea- 
dows, pastures  and  small  grain.  In 
sections  where  corn  or  other  culti- 
vated crops  can  not  be  profitably 
grown,  the  weed  problem  is  a  diffi- 
cult one.  To  rid  their  fields  of 
weeds,  the  farmers  must  summer 
fallow,  thereby  losing  the  crop  for 
one  j^ear.  Corn  growing  is  partially 
replacing  summer  fallow  in  many 
sections,  because  clean  cultivation  of 
corn  frees  the  ground  of  weeds  and 
the  corn  crop  is  not  a  heavy  user  of 
moisture.  The  crop  following  corn 
does  nearly  as  well  as  after  summer 
fallow,  thus  showing  the  importance 
of  killing  weeds. 

Influence  of  Weeds  on  Yield* 

The  most  important  factor  in  the 
growth  of  a  crop  of  corn  on  fer- 
tile soil  with  a  well-prepared  seed 
bed  in  humid  regions  is  the  killing 
of  weeds.  With  the  same  prepara- 
tion of  seed  bed,  corn  produced,  as 
an  eight-year  average,  7.3  bushels  per  acre  where  the  weeds  were  al- 
lowed to  grow,  and  45.9  bushels  where  the  weeds  were  kept  down  with- 
out any  cultivation.  This  gives  an  increase  of  38.6  bushels,  or  say  ^19.30 
per  acre,  for  keeping  weeds  down.  Weeds  deprive  the  plant  of  moisture, 
light  and  food,  all  of  Avhich  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  production^, 
of  crops. 


Poor  cultivation  in  June  gave  foxtail 
and  barnyard  grass  such  a  start 
that  the  yield  of  this  field  was  re- 
duced twenty  bushels  per  acre. 


'Illinois  Bulletin  No.  181. 


60  CORN  AND  COKX-GROWIXG 

The  Classes  of  Weeds 
Some  weeds  produce  enormous  quantities  of  seeds,  some  produce 
strong  underground  stems  (quack  grass)  or  roots  (Canada  thistle),  that 
produce  new  ])lants,  and  others  produce  both  seed  plentifully  and  strong 
underground  systems.  The  weeds  of  corn  may  be  classified  according 
to  the  length  of  their  life  as  follows: 

1.  Annuals — those  that  live  one  year,  such  as  foxtail  and  crab-grass. 

2.  Biennials — those  that  live  two  years,  such  as  bull  thistle  and  wild  carrot. 

3.  Perennials — those  that  live  more  than  two  years,  such  as  Canada  thistle 
and  quack  grass. 

The  annuals  and  biennials  are  usually  controlled  by  cultivation, 
because  they  grow  only  from  seed.  If  new  weed  seeds  are  kept  off  the 
farm,  and  the  weeds  already  growing  are  prevented  from  going  to  seed, 
no  great  amount  of  trouble  will  be  had  from  these.  ]\Iost  of  the  peren- 
nial weeds  are  propagated  by  underground  parts  as  well  as  seeds, 
and  the  job  of  eradication  is  more  difficult.  To  eradicate  these  weeds, 
all  top  growth  must  be  kept  down,  so  that  the  underground  parts  will 
starve.  Care  must  be  taken  in  cultivation  so  that  underground  parts 
are  not  spread  by  the  cultivator,  for  small  pieces  take  root  and  form 
new  patches  of  the  perennial  weed. 

Use  of  Smother  Crops  to  Kill  Weeds 

There  are  many  smother  crops  that  will  control  weed  growth  or  at 
least  weaken  the  growth  of  the  weeds  so  that  the  pests  may  easily  be 
eradicated  by  proper  cultivation.  Alfalfa,  Sudan  grass,  buckwheat  and 
sorghum  are  good  weed  exterminator  crops.  A  heavy  seeding  of  oats 
acts  as  a  smother  crop.  For  smother  crops  to  be  effective,  the  seed  bed 
must  be  clean  at  time  of  sowing.  Fall  plowing  and  thorough  cultiva- 
tion with  the  disk  in  the  spring,  followed  by  shallow  plowing  before 
seeding,  checks  the  weeds  severely.  The  oats  should  be  cut  early  for 
hay,  before  the  weeds  mature  seed.  After  the  removal  of  the  crop,  the 
ground  sliould  l)e  disked  and  plowed. 

Common  Corn  Field  Weeds 

Some  of  the  worst  corn  field  weeds  from  the  standpoint  of  number, 
difficulty  in  eradication  or  damage  to  the  corn  crop,  are : 

1.  Canada  thistle.     Cirsium  arvense. 

2.  Quack  grass.     Agropyron  repens. 

3.  Wild  morning-glory  (Bindweed).     Convoltnilus  sepium. 

4.  Black  bindweed   (Wild  buckwheat).      Polygonnm  convolvulus. 

5.  Cocklebur.     Xanthmm  canadcn.sc. 

6.  Indian  mallow  (Butter-print).     Abutilon  theophrasti. 

7.  Pennsylvania  smartweed    (Heart's-ease).     Polygonum   pcnnsylvayxicxim. 

8.  Lady's  thumb.     Polygonum  persicaria. 

9.  Foxtail   (green  and  yellow).     Setaria  viridis  and  Setaria  glauca. 

10.  Crab  grass   (Finger  grass).     Digitaria  sanguinalis. 

There  are  many  other  weeds  often  found  in  the  corn  field,  such  as 
European  biudwccd,  which  is  one  of  the  worst  of  all  when  it  gets  in  a 


WEEDS  OF  THE  CORN  FIELD 


61 


field,  milkweed,  horse-nettle,  slioot'ly.  lamb's  quarter,  wild  sunflower, 
barnyard  o'rass,  artichoke,  rajjrweed,  pigweed  and  Russian  thistle  (only 
in  western  ]>art  of  Corn  Belt). 

Methods  of  Control 

These  Aveeds  of  corn  are  classified  in  four  groups,  as  follows : 

1.  Weeds  which  require  a  special  type  of  shovel  on  the  corn  cultivator. 

2.  Weeds  which  can  not  be  handled  to  the  best  advantage  unless  the  land 
is  put  into  meadow  or  pasture  for  a  time. 

3.  Weeds  which  require  a  thorough  hand  hoeing  during  late  July  or  early 
August. 

4.  Weeds  which  are  common  in  every  corn  field  but  require  no  attention 
other  than  the  ordinary  three  or  four  cultivations. 

First  Group 

The  first  group  includes  weeds  like  the  Canada  thistle,  wild  morning- 
glory,  and  European  bindweed  and  other  weeds  that  grow  from  under- 


Quack  grass,  a  bad  corn  field  weed 
in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the 
Corn   Belt. 


Canada  thistle. 


ground  running  roots  and  from  seed.  These  running  roots  branch  and 
grow  horizontally  from  the  main  root.  They  may  be  found  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  few  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  At  almost  any  time 
during  the  growing  season,  buds  will  form  on  these  horizontal  roots  and 
send  up  new  plants.  The  above-ground  growth  manufactures  the  food 
material  that  is  stored  in  the  roots.  In  order  to  starve  out  the  plants, 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  down  all  top  growth.     If  the  underground  growth 


62 


CORS  AND  C'ORN-GROWIXG 


is  not  replenished  by  food  which  is  made  only  by  the  aid  of  green  leaves, 
all  of  the  food  in  the  underground  roots  Avill  be  used  by  the  growing 
plant.  In  time,  the  plant  and  roots  will  die.  It  is  necessary  to  watch 
for  the  introduction  of  new  plants  from  seed. 

Frequent  cultivating  with  si)earhead,  surface,  or  duck-foot  shovel  is 
necessary  so  as  to  keep  down  the  top  growth  of  the  weeds  in  this  group. 
After  cultivation  is  discontinued,  the  patches  of  these  weeds  should  be 
kept  down  by  hoeing.  Localized  patches  where  there  is  a  thick  stand 
may  be  summer  fallowed  and  a  crop  grown  on  the  remainder  of  the  field. 
Where  thistles  are  not  too  firmly  established,  smother  crops,  such  as 
alfalfa,  grasses,  millet  and  small  grains  thickly  sown  and  grown  for  one 
season  give  these  weeds  a  set-back  which  makes  easier  the  eradication  by 
clean  cultivation  in  the  corn  field  the  following  year.  The  plants  are 
easily  spread  by  root-stocks  that  hang  on  the  cultivator  shovels. 
Second  Group 

In  the  second  group  are  weeds  such  as  quack  grass  and  Johnson 
grass  which  spread  by  underground  stems  in  the  same  way  as  the  first 
group.  It  seems  necessary  to  put  a  field  that  is  badly  infested  with 
these  weeds  into  meadow  or  pasture  for  a  term  of  years.  The  pasturing 
or  continued  cutting  of  these  gras.ses  brings  the  underground  stems 
closer  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Exposing  the  underground  stems 
by  plowing  will  kill  many  of  the  plants.  The  following  crop  of  corn 
will  afford  a  good  place  for  thorough  cultivation  and  liberal  use  of  the 
hoe.     This  method  of  control  may  also  be  used  for  the  first  group. 

Third  Group 

Persistent  annual  weeds,  such  as 
the  cocklebur,  butter-print,  black 
bindweed,  wild  morning-glory  and  the 
Russian  thistle  are  weeds  that  should 
be  handled  by  the  third  method.  Or- 
dinary cultivation  will  not  kill  all  of 
these  weeds  in  a  corn  field  where  they 
have  a  good  hold.  It  will  recpiire 
thorough  cultivation  plus  hoeing  auil 
hand  pulling  during  late  July  and 
August  to  clean  a  field.  "Weeds  of  this 
type  set  an  abundance  of  seed,  and  so 
every  ])lant  should  be  eradicated. 
Plants  of  the  cocklebur  a  few  inches 
high  will  mature  seed.  The  Viur  of 
lliis  weel  encloses  a  pair  of  seed,  one 
oC  which  will  germinate  one  season 
and  the  other  the  next  season.  The 
seed  of  the  butter-print  lives  in  the 
soil  for  ten  or  more  years. 


L.. 


Foxtail,  the  most  widespread  annual 
weed    in    corn. 


WEEDS  OP  THE  ('ORX  FIELD  63 

Fourth  Group 

]\Iost  of  the  ordinary  annual  corn  field  weeds  are  in  this  class.  The 
most  common  weeds  of  this  group  are  the  Pennsylvania  smart  weed,  lady's 
thumb,  foxtail,  shoofly,  crab  grass,  lamb's  quarter,  and  pigweed.  Thor- 
ough preparation  of  seed  bed  and  cultivation  as  outlined  in  the  previous 
chapter  will  rid  badly  infested  fields  of  these  weeds.  Heavy  June  rains 
which  delay  the  first  or  second  cultivation  permit  annual  weeds  of  this 
type  to  become  very  serious.  In  this  case,  the  only  practical  thing 
which  can  be  done  is  to  cultivate  as  quickly  and  cleanly  as  the  weather 
will  permit.  Heavy  late  summer  rains  often  cause  a  rank  growth  of 
these  weeds  in  August,  even  though  the  field  was  clean  at  the  time  of 
"laying  by."  Such  a  growth  is  not  serious,  and  there  is  nothing  prac- 
tical to  do  about  it. 


CHAPTER  13 

HARVESTING  EAR  CORN 

npHE  three  methods  of  harvesting  that  have  to  do  with  ear  corn  are 
discussed  in  this  chapter,  while  the  other  methods  of  harvesting-  are 
taken  np  in  the  following  chapter.     The  six  general  methods  of  harvest- 
ing are  as  follows: 

1.  Husking  the  ears  by  hand  from  standing  stalks. 

2.  Snapping  the  ears  by  hand  from  standing  stalks. 

3.  Husking  the  ears  by  machine  from  standing  stalks. 

4.  Cutting  the  stalks  for  silage. 

5.  Cutting  the  stalks  for  fodder. 

6.  Harvesting  with  live  stock. 

Husking  by  Hand 

Most  of  the  crop  in  the  Corn  Belt  is  husked  by  hand  from  the  stand- 
ing stalks  after  heavv  frost.     At  this  time  the  ears  are  dry  enough  to  crib 


Thumb  hook.  The  husking  hook  takes 
an  altogether  different  motion  than 
the  peg.  Young  men  who  have 
learned  to  use  the  hook  find  it  much 
speedier. 


Husking  peg  or  pin  is  used  by  th  ^  old- 
er generation.  Clean  work  can  be 
'lone  with  the  peg,  but  it  is  slower 
than  the  hook. 


and  they  break  from  the  stalks  more  easily.  Before  corn  is  picked,  the 
husks  shoidd  be  dry  and  the  kernels  hard.  Ordinarily,  harvest  begins 
the  latter  part  of  October  and  is  completed  at  Thanksgiving  time,  but 
fields  occasionally  stand  throughout  the  entire  winter. 

With  the  use  of  a  husking  hook  or  peg,  one  man  will  average  about 
75  l)ushels  of  corn  a  day,  depending  upon  condition  and  yield  of  corn 
and  weather  conditions.  Records  of  100  bushels  of  corn  picked  in  a  day 
are  common.  An  unusual  corn  husking  record  is  261  bushels  picked 
in  a  ten-hour  day.  This  record  was  made  by  Charles  Fries,  of  Rippey, 
Iowa,  working  in  a  fichl  of  good  corn  averaging  60  bushels  to  the  acre. 
He  did  not  handle  the  team  nor  unload  the  corn,  but  only  picked.  Rec- 
ords are  ba.sed  chiefly  upon  the  stamina  of  the  picker,  but  it  is  unques- 


HARVESTING  EAR  CORN 


65 


tionably  true  that  men  who  use  hooks  generally  make  better  records 
than  those  who  use  pegs.  The  hook  method  of  husking  was  invented 
independently  by  R.  F.  Clark,  of  Illinois,  and  Mr.  Kees,  of  Nebraska, 
about  1895.  Young  men  have  found  the  hook  much  speedier  than  the 
peg,  but  the  older  men  still  cling  to  the  peg,  especially  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Corn  Belt.  The  hook,  except  in  the  hands  of  an  expert,  does 
not  husk  quite  as  clean  as  the  peg. 

One  man  with  team  and  wagon  picks  two  rows  at  a  time  in  one  trip 
across  the  field  in  the  direction  the  corn  is  planted.  The  ordinary  farm 
wagon  is  equipped  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  picker  with  a  "bang 
board,"  or  extension  side,  against  which  the  picker  throws  the  husked 
ears.  Tn  addition  to  the  husking  peg  or  hook,  and  gloves,  the  "bang 
board"  is  the  only  extra  equipment  used. 

Snapping  Corn 

Snapping  is  the  breaking  of  the  ear  from  the  stalk,  but  not  remov- 
ing the  husk.  This  practice  is  common  in  the  south,  where  corn  dries 
out  well  and  there  is  danger  of  injury  in  the  crib  from  moths  or  weevils. 
In  the  Corn  Belt,  corn  fed  directly  from  the  field  early  in  the  fall  is 
snapped  in  order  to  save  the  labor  of  husking.  Sweet  corn  is  usually 
snapped  and  hauled  directly  to  the  cannery.  Ordinarily,  corn  for  crib- 
bing is  not  snapped,  because : 

1.  The  husks  interfere  with  the  drying  of  the  corn  in  the  crib. 

2.  The  husks  take  up  storage  room. 

3.  The  husks  interfere  with  corn  shelling,  except  in  the  case  of  big  power 
shellers. 

Husking  By  Machine 

Eventually,  corn  husking  machines  will  be  used  extensively,  but 
they  will  come  into  common  use  gradually.  The  machines  were  used 
on  many  large  farms  during  the  World  war.     There  has  been  a  great 


Husking  machines  give  satisfaction  under  some  conditions. 


66  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

improvement  in  the  corn  picker,  and  improvement  will  continue  so  that 
the  machine  will  pick  up  down  stalks,  catch  shelled  corn  and  husk  clean 
in  dry  weather. 

Even  now,  corn  pickinf?  machines  seem  to  have  been  sufficiently 
perfected  so  that  they  are  a  decided  success  on  the  larger  farms  where 
all  conditions  are  favorable.  All  conditions  are  not  likely  to  be  favor- 
able, however,  for  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  time  Avith  the  types  of 
corn  which  are  now  most  generally  grown  in  the  Corn  Belt.  There  is 
a  real  opportunity  for  someone  to  develop  types  of  corn  genuinely  adapt- 
ed to  the  corn  hu.sking  machine. 

In  standing  corn,  during  October,  the  machine  seems  to  give  better 
results  than  the  ordinar.y  busker,  picking  many  nubbins  which  most 
buskers  pass  up  and  leaving  less  in  the  way  of  silks  and  ribbons  on  the 
corn  in  the  wagon.  With  six  horses  and  one  man,  it  will  pick  on  the 
average  about  370  bushels  in  a  ten-hour  day.  But  as  the  season  wears 
on  and  the  stalks  become  brittle  and  some  of  the  ears  drop  off,  the  ma- 
chine seems  to  labor  under  a  serious  handicap.  Ideal  picking  condi- 
tions are : 

1.  Upright,  hard  shelling  corn. 

2.  Stalks  and  husks  not  too  brittle. 

3.  Dry  under  foot. 

4.  Cloudy  or  damp  weather. 

Heretofore,  in  the  Corn  Belt,  corn  breeders  have  selected  for  single- 
eared  types  of  corn  because  of  the  greater  labor  of  husking  two-eared 
stalks.  With  the  corn  husking  machine,  however,  there  may  be  a  positive 
advantage  in  two-eared  sorts. 

W^ith  hand  buskers.,  it  is  inadvisable  for  corn  to  carry  the  ears  much 
lower  than  waist  high,  but  with  the  machine  it  is  permissible  for  the  ears 
to  be  as  low  as  two  feet  from  the  ground.  For  the  picking  machine,  it 
seems  that  a  rather  smooth-kerneled,  shallow-grained  sort  which  clings 
tightly  to  the  cob  would  be  better  than  a  deep-grained,  rough,  easy- 
shelling  kind. 

Reid  Yellow  Dent,  and  other  varieties  of  corn  similarly  bied,  are 
responsible  for  a  large  part  of  the  difficulty  with  corn  picking  machines. 
Reid  Yellow  Dent  is  an  ideal  variety  for  hand  huskers'  carrying  a  large 
ear  on  a  small  shank  and  breaking  off  easily.  It  is  just  about  the  worst 
possible  variety  for  machine  husking. 

Even  under  ideal  conditions,  when  the  machine  picks  cleanly,  there 
are  some  objections  to  the  mechanical  picker,  as  f oIIoavs  : 

1.  It  requires  five  or  six  horses  to  pull  the  machine. 

2.  It  is  hard  on  the  horses. 

3.  It  tears  down  the  stalks  and  leaves  them  in  poor  condition  for  pas- 
turing. 

4.  It  is  expensive,  costing  about  .$400. 

Elevating  the  Corn 
The  larger  Corn  Belt  farms  usually  have  a  portable  elevator  for 
delivering  the  husked  corn  from  the  wagon  to  the  crib.     These  elevators 


HARVESTING  EAR  CORN 


07 


save  the  large  amount  of  hand  labor  required  when  the  corn  is  scooped 
by  shovel  from  the  wagon  into  the  crib.  The  corn  is  dumped  and  ele- 
vated by  power  furnished  bj"  a  team  or  gasoline  engine.  A  crib  may 
be  entirely  filled  with  no  hand  labor.  For  shoveling,  the  w'agon  is 
equipped  with  a  special  end-gate,  which  provides  room  for  the  shoveler 
to  stand. 

Corn  Cribs 
A  good  corn  crib  should  provide  for  the  following : 

1.  Ventilation. 

2.  Protection  from  rodents. 

3.  Exclusion  of  moisture. 

4.  Accessibility  to  the  feed  lot. 

5.  Permanency. 

Most  of  the  cribs  are  of  wood  with  slatted  siding.     These  cribs  are 
of  varying  lengths,  but  are  quite  \niiformly  eight  feet  wide,  so  that  good 


Cribbing  corn  with  portable  elevator. 


ventilation  is  obtained.  In  years  of  large  corn  crops,  much  corn  is  placed 
in  temporary  wire  or  stave  fence  cribs.  For  permanency,  farmers  have 
been  building  cribs  of  special  hollow  tile  that  has  a  channel  extending 
downward  toward  the  outside  of  the  crib.  These  circular  cribs  with 
central  ventilators  and  cement  floors  have  proved  very  satisfactory. 

Moisture  in  Corn 

It  is  not  safe  to  crib  in  an  ordinary  crib,  ear  corn  that  has  over  30 
per  cent  moisture.  In  an  average  j^ear  at  husking  time,  corn  will  con- 
tain from  20  to  30  per  cent  moisture.  There  is  a  rapid  decrease  from 
September  to  November  in  the  amount  of  moisture  in  cribbed  corn,  and 
again  in  the  spring  months. 


68  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

From  November  until  the  following  October,  corn  will  lose  from  8 
to  20  per  cent  in  weight,  depending  upon  conditions.  As  a  rule,  there 
will  be  about  17  per  cent  shrinkage  in  ordinary  corn  the  first  year.  The 
second  3'ear  there  is  a  small  amount  of  shrinkage  in  crib  corn,  usually 
less  than  one  per  cent.     (See  Chapter  21.) 

Measuring  Corn 

To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn  in  a  bin,  multiply 
the  length  by  the  width  by  the  depth  (all  in  feet),  and  divide  by  1.25. 
To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  ear  corn,  divide  by  2.5.  If  the  corn 
is  in  the  husk,  divide  by  3.5,  For  a  round  crib,  multiply  the  distance 
around  the  crib  by  the  diameter  by  the  depth  of  the  corn  (all  in  feet) 
and  divide  by  10  to  get  the  number  of  bushels  of  ear  corn ;  if  the  corn 
is  in  the  husk,  divide  by  14.5.  A  common  wagon  box  is  10  feet  long  and 
3  feet  wide.  It  will  hold  two  bushels  of  shelled  corn  or  one  bushel  of 
ear  corn  for  every  inch  in  depth.  There  are  2,150.42  cubic  inches  in 
a  bushel  of  shelled  corn,  and  4,300  cubic  inches  in  a  bushel  of  ear  corn 
(allowing  70  pounds  of  ear  corn  to  the  bushel).  In  the  case  of  unusu- 
ally deep  grained,  smooth-dented,  well-matured  corn,  3,800  cubic  inches 
of  ear  corn  may  shell  out  a  bushel. 

Pasturing  Corn  Stalks 

A  valuable  by-product  of  the  husked  corn  crop  is  the  excellent  pas- 
ture afforded  by  stalk  fields  after  husking.  A  majority  of  Corn  Belt 
farmers  turn  live  stock  into  a  corn  field  as  soon  as  the  field  has  been 
husked.  A  stalk  field  furnishes  a  good  place  to  winter  over  cattle  and 
horses.  The  live  stock  break  down  the  stalks,  aiding  in  preparation  of 
seed  bed  in  the  spring.  Pasturing  of  stalks  in  wet  weather  is  a  dis- 
advantage, especially  on  heavy  soils,  as  the  live  stock  will  pack  the  soil. 

Shelling  Corn 

Ear  corn  not  containing  more  than  25  per  cent  moisture  will  shell 
readily,  and  in  the  frozen  state  corn  with  more  moisture  will  shell. 
However,  it  is  not  safe  to  bin  shelled  corn  containing  more  than  19  per 
cent  moisture.  If  shelled  corn  is  to  be  stored  beyond  April  15,  it  should 
not  contain  more  than  17.5  per  cent  moisture,  or  it  is  likely  to  heat  seri- 
ously during  the  first  spell  of  w^arm  w-eather.  Grade  3  corn,  which 
contains  not  more  than  17.5  per  cent  moisture,  may  be  safely  shipped  in 
warm  weather. 

The  two  types  of  corn  shellers  are  spring  sheller  and  cylinder 
sheller.  ]\Iost  of  the  small  power  shellers  and  hand  shellers  are  of  the 
spring  type.  These  shellers  have  an  adjustable  rag  iron  that  holds  the 
ears  against  a  deep  grooved  wheel  that  shells  the  corn  from  the  ear  as  a 
large  wheel  revolves  the  ear,  so  that  the  kernels  are  removed  from  the 
entire  ear.  Blowers  for  cleaning,  cob  stackers,  and  elevators  are  part 
of  most  of  the  power  types.     The  cylinder  sheller  is  usually  a  large  power 


HARVESTING  EAR  CORN  69 

machines.  The  corn  is  shelled  by  the  revolvino-  of  shellin«>'  rin<zs  within 
a  cylinder  cage.  A  common  objection  to  this  type  of  sheller  is  the 
broken  cobs  and  cracked  kernels  that,  result.  Large  shellers  of  this 
type  will  shell  as  many  as  350  bushels  in  an  hour,  and  will  handle 
"snapped"  corn  fairly  well. 

Time  Required  for  Husking 

According  to  the  1922  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  about  the  following  number  of  bushels  may  be  husked  in 
a  ten-hour  day: 

Bushels 

From  shock,  by  hand,  one  man 45.0 

From  standing  stalks,  by  hand,  one  man,  two  horses 85.0 

From  standing  stalks,  by  machine,  one  man,  six  horses 375.0 


CHAPTER  14 

SOFT  CORN 

COFT  corn  contains  from  25  to  65  per  cent  moisture.     It   is  only  in 
very  nnnsnal  years,  such  as  1902,  1915  and  1917,  that  much  of  our 
central  Corn  Belt  corn  will  contain  over  25  per  cent  moisture  in  De- 
cember.    In  such  a  year,  the  following  information  is  of  great  value. 

Soft  corn  usually  falls  in  the  "sample"  grade,  for  it  contains  over 
23  per  cent  moisture  in  addition  to  damaged  grains.     To  classify  soft 
corn  simply  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  present,  the  following  approxi- 
mate grading  was  made  by  the  loAva  station : 
Percent  Moisture  Grade 

65 Markedly   soft    (rare) 

55 Very   soft 

45 ; Soft 

35 Fairly   soft 

25 Cribable 

20 Safe   corn 

14 Old  corn,  mature 

12 Usually  two-year-old  corn 

8 Usually  kiln-dried 

Ways  of  Utilizing 

It  is  best  to  leave  soft  corn  in  the  field  as  long  as  possible  because 
it  will  dry  more  rapidly.  However,  special  precautions  must  be  made 
for  the  use  of  the  crop.  The  following  are  a  number  of  methods  of 
using  the  soft  corn  crop  that  are  suitable  for  different  conditions : 

1.  Ensiling 

2.  Shocking 

3.  Cribbing 

4.  Shredding 

5.  Marketing 

6.  Feeding 

Silage 

The  silo  is  an  excellent  place  for  storing  soft  corn.  Usually,  it  is 
safe  to  add  water,  but  the  aim  always  should  be  to  produce  a  silage 
that  will  run  from  60  to  70  pounds  of  water  for  100  pounds  of  material 
as  it  is  taken  from  the  silo.  Ordinary  mature  dry  fodder  corn  which 
is  siloed  in  January  and  February  will  require  about  a  ton  of  water 
with  every  ton  of  fodder.  Some  years  soft  corn  will  require  the  addi- 
tion of  no  water  for  silage. 

To  ensile  the  soft  ear  corn  without  the  stover  is  practical.  Soft 
corn    ears    in    the    late    roasting    stage    or    silage    were    husked,    run 


SOFT  CORN  71 

through  a  silag'e  cutter  and  tightly  packed  into  small  silos,  in  a  test 
at  the  Iowa  station.  The  silage  resulting  after  twelve  days  of  fermenta- 
tion (ordinary  silage  is  practically  made  in  ten  days)  was  good.  It 
had  a  favorable  odor,  much  like  ordinary  corn  silage.  It  was  bright, 
light  colored,  free  from  mold,  and  palatable.  Such  corn  grain  and  cob 
silage  will  not  develop  as  much  acidity  as  ordinary  silage,  but  enough 
to  preserve  it  if  properly  cut  up  and  packed.  At  the  end  of  two  months 
this  soft  ear  corn  silage  Avas  in  excellent  feeding  condition.  "Snapped" 
corn  (ear  plus  husks)  will  make  good  silage.  The  husks  are  of  advan- 
tage in  that  they  will  tend  to  tie  or  pack  the  small  ear  pieces  closely 
together  and  hold  the  desirable  moisture. 

Shocking  the  Soft  Corn  Crop 

Shocking  the  corn  in  small  shocks  will  help  to  save  the  stover,  which 
is  of  high  quality  in  a  soft  corn  year.  Shocking  will  be  of  further  ad- 
vantage in  that  the  ears  will  dry  out  rapidly,  especially  in  dry  weather. 
In  a  favorable  season,  the  ears  really  dry  out  so  as  to  make  a  little  better 
feed  than  if  allowed  to  dry  out  and  weather  on  the  stalk.  However, 
in  a  wet  season  there  is  some  risk  in  the  shocking  process. 

Cribbing  Soft  Corn 

Usually  corn  is  safe  to  crib  when  it  contains  not  more  than  33  per 
cent  moisture.  The  more  mature  corn,  from  the  .hillsides,  the  high 
ground  and  the  earlier  plantings,  may  advantageously  be  stored  in  the 
crib.  The  silks  and  husks  and  other  foreign  material  tend  to  hinder 
ventilation  and  promote  souring  and  molding.  The  softest  ears  should 
be  separated  and  fed  early  if  practicable.  The  wagon  bed  may  be 
divided  into  two  bins,  one  in  front  for  soft  corn  and  one  behind  for 
hard  corn.  Another  place  where  sorting  is  practical  is  at  the  crib  if 
an  elevator  is  used.  The  soft  ears  may  be  picked  from  the  elevator  chute 
and  thrown  out,  while  the  mature  ears  are  allowed  to  proceed  upward. 
The  crib  should  be  off  the  ground  to  aid  ventilation.  The  six  or  seven- 
foot  crib  excels  the  eight-foot  in  the  soft  corn  year. 

Crib  ventilation  by  special  devices  is  valuable.  Fill  the  bed  of  the 
crib  about  two  to  three  feet  deep  with  ear  corn;  place  the  ventilators 
on  top  of  the  corn,  running  them  lengthwise  with  the  crib.  Fill  in 
another  two  or  three  feet  of  corn,  place  more  ventilators,  and  so  on  until 
the  crib  is  filled.  These  ventilators  are  best  made  out  of  2x8 's  set  on 
edge  side  by  side  about  8  to  12  inches  apart.  Nail  cross  cleats  on  the 
top  as  well  as  on  the  bottom  of  the  two  parallel  2x8 's,  so  as  to  form  a  long, 
rectangular,  open  box.  Instead  of  slats  or  cleats,  a  substantial  grade 
of  galvanized  or  plain  wire  mesh  may  be  used.  To  keep  the  2x8 's  from 
collapsing  and  to  prevent  filling  with  corn,  the  cross  cleats  should  be 
liberally  provided.  There  is  another  simple  ventilator  built  like  a  hog 
trough.  It  is  placed  in  the  crib  in  a  horizontal  position  and  turned  face 
downward.     The  air  can  not  proceed  upward  through  this  trough,  for 


72  COKN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

the  only  opening-  is  on  the  inverted  side.  Lay  either  of  these  types  of 
ventilators  in  the  crib  about  two  to  four  feet  apart.  A  six-foot  crib 
should  nsnally  have  two  ventilators  runninpr  lengthwise.  In  placing  the 
ventilators  of  the  second  set,  place  them  midway  between,  not  directly 
above  the  ones  first  placed  on  the  next  lower  level.  Put  the  third  set 
directly  over  those  of  the  first  set,  and  so  on. 

Vertical  ventilators  may  be  used.  These  ventilators  are  usually  made 
of  eight  to  twelve-inch  tile.  They  should  extend  from  the  floor  of  the 
crib  to  the  roof.  Between  the  tiles  place  a  couple  of  1x1 's  or  2x2 's,  to 
allow  the  air  to  enter  the  tile  at  every  joint.  The  first  horizontal  ven- 
tilators previously  described  may  be  used  vertically. 

Use  of  Salt 

Tests  by  Hughes  at  the  Iowa  station  show  that  salt  is  of  value  in 
retarding  fermentation  and  the  development  of  molds  in  soft  corn.  In 
cribbing  soft  corn,  from  one-half  to  one  pound  of  salt  for  each  100  pounds 
of  soft  corn  may  be  used,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  condition  of 
the  corn.  While  two  pounds  of  salt  per  100  pounds  of  corn  appears 
to  give  noticeably  better  results  than  one  pound,  it  is  probable  that  this 
amount  of  salt  can  not  be  used  safely  when  the  corn  is  to  be  fed  to  live 
stock.  If  stored  under  favorable  conditions,  the  use  of  salt  will  not 
prevent  the  development  of  molds  or  of  heating,  particularly  in  ear  corn. 
Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  greatest  care  in  providing  the  best 
ventilation  possible.  Especially  soft  ears  and  ears  which  are  already 
damaged  should  be  sorted  out  before  placing  the  rest  of  the  corn  in  the 
crib.  The  effect  of  the  salt  in  preventing  shelled  corn  from  heating  and 
molding  should  be  of  value  when  such  corn  is  shel!ed  and  shipped,  before 
it  has  thoroughly  dried.  The  great  danger  of  soft  corn  heating  when 
in  storage  and  transit  is  well  known. 

Use  of  Heat 

Soft  corn  has  been  dried  out  in  the  crib  at  a  Ioav  cost  by  a  method 
originated  by  the  Iowa  station.     Ventilators  are  placed  underneath  a 


Model  of  the  Hughes  hot-air  drier,  which  has  been  used  very  successfully  in 
making  soft  corn  cribbable. 


SOFT  CORN  73 

crib  and  heat  is  forced  by  means  of  a  hot-air  furnace  and  blower  through 
the  corn.  A  series  of  trap  doors  allows  drying-  out  of  small  sections  of 
the  crib  at  one  time.  In  tests,  the  moisture  content  of  crib  corn  was  re- 
duced from  over  30  per  cent  to  less  than  10  per  cent,  at  a  cost  for  fuel 
and  power  of  less  than  five  cents  a  bushel.  One  northern  Iowa  farmer 
dried  3,000  bushels  of  soft  corn  in  one  crib  by  this  method  at  a  cost  of 
less  than  one  cent  a  bushel. 

Shredding 

Shredding  soft  corn  is  usually  unsatisfactory.  It  is  hard  to  shred 
because  it  is  sappy,  and,  furthermore,  if  it  is  not  well  dried  out  it  will 
spoil  in  storage.  Some  farmers  recommend  the  addition  of  salt,  about 
five  to  twenty  ])Ounds  to  the  ton.  If  necessary  to  shred,  it  is  well  to 
shred  often,  and  not  store  too  large  a  quantity  of  shredded  material. 
It  is  well  to  put  off  the  shredding  to  the  latest  possible  date,  so  that 
the  corn  will  be  well  dried  out  in  the  shock. 

Marketing 
In  marketing  soft  corn,  it  is  well  to  shell  in  a  frozen  condition  and 
haul  it  to  market  in  the  frozen  state.  Inasmuch  as  a  premium  is  paid 
for  the  most  mature,  hardest  corn,  it  is  well  to  sell  that  and  feed  the  soft 
ear  corn.  It  is  surprising  how  much  water  in  a  frozen  condition  ear 
corn  can  carry  in  the  grain.  Even  though  not  frozen,  corn  with  as  much 
as  25  per  cent  moisture  will  shell  readily. 

Feeding 

The  feeding  of  soft  corn  is  the  most  logical  method  of  disposition. 
There  are  two  essential  precautions :  Feed  early  while  the  quality  is 
still  good,  and  feed  often — three,  four  and  more  times  a  day.  IMoldy 
corn  is  dangerous  for  horses  and  young  sheep.  But  hogs  may  usually 
be  trusted  to  eat  what  they  will. 

"Moldy  corn,"  says  Dr.  R.  E.  Buchanan,  "has  often  been  suspected 
of  poisoning  cattle  and  hogs.  Investigations  carried  on  in  recent  years 
seem  to  indicate,  however,  that  this  rarely,  if  ever,  occurs.  The  dis- 
eases or  sickness  of  cattle  which  once  were  supposed  to  be  due  to  mold 
poisoning  have  since  been  found  to  be  due  to  infection  with  hemorrhagic 
septicemia  or  other  diseases  which  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
mold  on  corn.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  there  is  no  good  reason  why 
corn  showing  more  or  less  mold  can  not  safely  be  fed  to  cattle  and  hogs. 

"The  molds  which  appear  are  sometimes  blackish,  sometimes  bluish, 
greenish  or  pinkish  in  color.  If  these  molds  are  not  present  in  exces- 
sive amounts,  that  is,  the  corn  is  not  actually  rotten  or  matted  together 
by  the  mold,  it  is  not  probable  that  cattle  and  hogs  will  be  injured  by 
eating  it. 

"What  has  been  said  above,  however,  should  not  be  used  as  justi- 
fication for  feeding  moldy  corn  to  horses.  Many  instances  are  on  record 
of  horses  being  killed  by  eating  moldy  silage,  moldy  corn,  and  moldv 


74  CORN  AXD  CORN-GROWING 

forage  of  other  types.  "Whether  or  not  it  is  the  mold  itself  or  some 
other  organism  growing  in  the  moldy  corn  that  causes  the  trouble  is  at 
present  uncertain." 

Food  Value  of  the  Crop 

The  yield  of  dry  matter  in  corn  at  different  stages,  on  the  acre  basis, 
as  figured  from  Indiana  results  of  Jones  and  Huston,  on  a  basis  of  100 
as  final  mature  yield,  is  as  follows : 

Table  VIII 


Stage  of  Growth 


o 


CC     CD 


o  w     m  c  m  Hp. 

Four  feet  high .'. I...: ;...J.^ | |  7.76 

First  tassels I | |  23.85 

Silks  drying,  kernels  forming !     14.56|     90.21|  48.53 

In  the  milk |     43.73|     92.41|  65.59 

In  the  glaze |     74.561  100.00|  86.11 

Well  dented |     89.19|  101.84]  94.87 

Ready  to  shock |  100.00|  100.00 1_100-00 

In  the  early  kernel  stage,  less  than  15  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter 
found  at  maturity  has  been  laid  down  in  the  ear,  and  only  44  per  cent 
in  the  milk  stage.  If  frost  comes  when  the  milk  still  shows  plainly, 
the  yield  is  approximately  half  in  dr}^  matter,  as  compared  to  the  nor- 
mal matured  .yield.  The  stover  contains  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the 
total  possible  dry  matter  as  early  as  the  milk  stage.  Therefore,  in  frost- 
ed corn  the  greatest  damage  in  yield  is  to  the  ears. 


CHAPTER  15 


CORN  FODDER 


/^ORN  fodder  is  the  source  of  a  large  amount  of  feed  for  all  types  of 
live  stock.  The  entire  plant,  including  ears,  is  referred  to  as  corn 
fodder,  while  the  stalks  without  ears  are  called  corn  stover.  This  chap- 
ter will  deal  Avith  both  corn  fodder  and  stover,  and  also  the  method  of 
handling  corn  for  silage  up  to  the  time  it  is  ready  for  the  silo.  Chapter 
16  discusses  the  making  of  co"n  silage. 

Varieties  of  Corn  for  Fodder 
In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  the  safe  thing  for  most  Corn 
Belt  farmers  to  do  is  to  stick  by  the  regulation  grain  sorts  as  commonly 
grown  in  the  community,  since  the  grain  is  the  most  valuable  part  of 
the  plant.  Approximately  60  per  cent  of  the  digestible  food  materials 
present  in  the  corn  plant  are  found  in  the  ears,  and  40  per  cent  in  the 
stover.  Eventually  we  shall  do  as  in  New  York  and  New  England, 
where  they  almost  invariably  use  a  different  variety  for  fodder  than 
they  do  for  grain.  Our  present  varieties  are  not  perfect.  They  blow 
down  too  easily.  A  two-eared  sort  of  Reid  or  Learning  might  be  well 
worth  while  for  fodder  and  silage  and  a  little  later  .sort  may  well  be  used 
for  fodder  than  for  grain. 

The  large,  late  ma- 
turing varieties  from  the 
southern  states  have  in 
some  cases  given  a  larger 
amount  of  dry  matter 
than  the  adapted  local 
varieties,  but  as  the  dif- 
ference i  s  relatively 
slight  and  the  quality  of 
fodder  and  silage  rela- 
tively, poor,  and  a  much 
greater  tonnage  of  green 
fodder  must  be  handled, 
owing  to  the  greater  per- 
centage of  water  in  the 
more  immature  south- 
ern varieties,  those 
*  adapted  to  the  locality 
^  a  r  e  considered  more 
profitable. 


76  (H)RX  AND  CORN-GROAVING 

It  is  desirable  to  plant  corn  Avliich  is  to  be  used  for  fodder  just  as 
early  as  if  the  crop  were  to  be  harvested  for  grain  only.  The  corn  should 
mature  early  enough  to  be  ready  to  harvest  before  frost,  as  only  in  that 
Avay  is  the  maximum  yield  of  dry  matter  obtained.  In  some  instances, 
when  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  plant  a  field  of  corn  rather  late  in 
the  season,  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  use  the  replanted  corn  for 
fodder,  as  the  crop  will  often  become  sufficiently  mature  before  frost 
to  make  a  fair  quality  of  fodder  and  silage  when  it  would  not  do  to  crib. 

Method  of  Planting 

It  really  makes  little  difference  whether  corn  for  fodder  is  drilled 
or  checked.  If  the  land  used  is  verj'^  weedy,  checking  undoubtedly  will 
be  the  safest  method,  as  the  weeds  can  be  better  kept  under  control  by 
cultivating  in  both  directions.  On  clean  ground,  drilling  is  often  pre- 
ferred, as  the  plants  will  be  more  uniform  in  size  and  the  corn  binder 
will  run  more  smoothly,  since  the  stalks  are  cut  one  at  a  time.  On  very 
fertile,  clean  ground,  a  somewhat  greater  yield  may  be  secured  b}^ 
drilling. 

Rate  of  Planting 

Corn  for  fodder  may  be  planted  a  little  thicker  than  for  grain,  as 
a  greater  yield  of  both  grain  and  fodder  usually  will  result.  The  rows 
are  placed  three  feet  six  inches  apart  and  the  kernels  dropped  so  that 
there  will  be  one  stalk  every  nine  or  twelve  inches  in  the  row  when  drilled 
or  three  to  five  stalks  per  hill  when  checked.  The  thickness  of  plant- 
ing should  depend  somewhat  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  variety, 
the  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  region  and  to  some  extent  upon  the  length 
of  the  growing  season.  If  the  corn  is  planted  too  far  apart,  the  stalks 
grow  rank  and  woody,  there  is  a  tendency  to  mature  late,  and  also  the 
yield  will  be  reduced.  On  the  other  hand'  corn  may  be  planted  too 
thickly  to  be  desirable  for  silage.  If  too  thick,  the  plants  lack  substance 
and  shrink  badly  in  the  silo,  the  percentage  of  grain  is  slightly'  reduced 
and  there  may  be  a  greater  tendency  for  the  corn  to  blow  down. 

Time  to  Cut 

The  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  kernels  are  well  dented  and 
hard  and  the  lower  leaves  of  the  plant  turned  brown.  At  this  stage,  the 
corn  plant  has  its  greatest  feeding  value.  In  addition,  it  is  in  good  con- 
dition to  put  in  the  silo. 

Although  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  time 
to  harvest  corn  for  silage,  it  is  generally  conceded  that  immature  corn 
does  not  make  the  best  quality  of  silage.  When  corn  is  cut  too  early, 
the  silage  has  a  dark  color,  contains  too  much  acid  and  some  of  the  feed- 
ing value  is  lost.  Some  farmers  prefer  greener  silage  for  feeding  to 
dairy  coavs  than  for  feeding  to  beef  animals.  For  the  value  of  corn  at 
different  stages  of  growth,  see  Table  VIII,  Chapter  14. 

Of  course,  it  is  desirable  not  to  allow  the  corn  to  become  fully  ripe 
because  the  ]ilants  become  more  woody  and  leaves  are  lost.     If,  how- 


CORN  FODDER  77 

ever,  the  corn  becomes  over-ripe  before  cutting-,  a  good  quality  of  silage 
can  be  made  if  a  little  water  is  added  by  running  it  into  the  top  of  the 
blower  with  a  hose  while  the  silo  is  being  filled.  Sufficient  water  should 
be  added  to  make  it  possible  to  pack  the  silage  firmly. 

Method  of  Harvest 

Corn  may  be  cut  either  by  machinery  or  by  hand.  Hand  cutting 
is  seldom  practiced,  but  is  sometimes  resorted  to  when  the  corn  is  blown 
down  so  badly  as  to  prevent  harvesting  with  machines.  It  is  well  to 
make  the  bundles  rather  small,  for  while  this  will  take  more  tw^ine,  the 
bundles  may  be  shocked  and  loaded  on  the  wagons  more  easily,  and  also 
they  will  feed  into  the  silage  cutter  somewhat  better. 

Shocking  Corn  Fodder 

Ripe  corn  should  be  shocked  as  soon  as  it  is  cut.  If  the  corn  is 
green  and  full  of  moisture,  it  should  be  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground 
for  a  few  days.  The  shocks  should  be  large-  containing  about  forty 
medium  sized  bundles.  Two  men  working  together  can  build  a  firm 
shock  by  setting  the  bundles  in  an  upright  position,  the  butts  firmly  on 
the  ground,  and  bracing  the  shock  from  all  sides.  The  tops  of  the  bun- 
dles may  be  closely  compressed  together  with  a  small  rope  that  has  a 
ring  in  one  end.  Binder  twine  may  then  be  used  to  hold  the  tops  to- 
gether and  the  rope  released  for  use  on  the  next  shock.  A  shock  of 
this  type  should  stand  a  year  with  a  minimum  amount  of  waste. 

Losses  in  Corn  Fodder 

There  is  a  loss  of  feed  value  in  both  silage  and  fodder.  However, 
the  loss  in  the  latter  is  greater.  No  matter  how  well  shocked,  corn  fod- 
der will  lose  in  value.  Corn  fodder  or  stover  standing  in  the  field  for 
a  few  months,  according  to  Henry  and  Morrison,  loses  20  per  cent  of 
the  dry  matter  it  contains,  due  to  weathering  and  fermentation.  They 
say  that  the  losses  are  in  the  sugar,  protein  and  starch,  the  most  valu- 
able ])arts. 

Utilization  of  Fodder 

Corn  fodder  may  be  utilized  in  any  of  the  following  ways : 

1.  Soiling  crop — cut  green  and  fed. 

2.  Dry  corn  fodder — cured  in  the  shock. 

3.  Shredding — ears  removed  and  stover  torn  in  small  pieces. 

4.  Stover — ears  removed  and  stover  fed. 

5.  Silage — discussed  in  Chapter  16. 

6.  Miscellaneous   uses. 

Corn  as  a  Soiling  Crop 

Because  of  poor  pastures  in  the  late  summer,  many  farmers  feed 
green  corn  to  their  live  stock.  Usually  the  corn  is  cut  daily  and  fed. 
This  corn  is  palatable  and  relished  by  all  kinds  of  live  stock.     More  corn 


78 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


is  used  this  way  than  is  generally  realized.  Sweet  clover  and  early 
varieties  of  dent  corn  may  be  used  to  good  advantage,  for  they  are  ready 
to  feed  early  in  the  season. 

Dry  Corn  Fodder 

The  cured  corn  fodder  (shock  corn)  may  be  fed  directly  from  the 
shocks  or  from  stacks  where  it  is  stored  for  ease  in  feeding.  Fodder 
should  not  be  put  in  stacks  or  mows  until  it  is  cured.  The  stacks  should 
be  narrow  and  not  over  ten  feet  high,  and  it  may  be  advisable  to  put 
layers  of  straw  or  hay  betw^een  the  layers  of  fodder  bundles.  There  is 
some  waste  in  both  corn  and  stover  in  feeding  fodder.  It  is  not  nearl.y 
so  valuable  as  silage.  Corn  may  be  thickly  grown  and  cured  to  make  a 
coarse  hay. 

Shredding 

Most  of  the  shredding  machines  now  used  husk  the  ears  from  the 
fodder  and  then  tear  the  stover  into  small  strips.  The  husked  ears  are 
elevated  into  a  wati'on  and  the  shredded  stover  is  elevated  or  l)lowu  into 


.J^    ■. 

■ 

f^; 

l^55BB 

Shreddins  corn  fodder. 

the  barn  or  stack.  The  shredded  stover  is  easily  handled,  and  there  is 
less  waste  than  in  ordinary  stover.  The  shredded  stover  makes  good 
bedding.  Large  piles  of  shredded  stover  heat  easily,  especially  if  the 
stover  is  green.  The  addition  of  salt  heljis  to  keep  down  heating.  Usu- 
ally, shredding  is  done  late  in  the  season. 

Corn  Stover 

Often  the  ears  are  removed  from  shock  corn  and  the  stover  fed 
directly  to  live  stock  as  a  roughage.     The  stover  of  small,  early  varieties 


CORN  FODDER  79 

as  grown  in  the  northern  Corn  Belt  is  of  good  quality.  Stover  may  be 
fed  to  all  classes  of  live  stock  and  will  "carry  over  the  winter"  cattle 
and  idle  horses. 

Miscellaneous 

In  some  sections,  especially  in  new  regions  where  machinery  is 
scarce,  corn  fodder  is  rim  through  an  ordinary  threshing  machine.  The 
grain  is  shelled  and  the  stover  blown  into  the  barn  or  stack.  In  the 
south,  corn  is  topped — stalk  cut  off  just  above  the  ear — and  the  leaves 
are  stripped  from  the  stalk  for  feed.  This  practice  is  often  followed 
to  hasten  maturity.  However,  the  practice  is  not  recommended,  for  it 
reduces  the  yield  of  ear  corn  very  greatly. 

Standard  Day's  Work 

Under  favorable  conditions,  the  following  number  of  acres  ean  be 
handled  in  a  ten-hour  day : 

Cutting : 

Binder,  40-bushel  corn,  one  man,  three  horses 8.0 

Platform  cutter,  40-bushel  corn,  two  men,  two  horses 6.0 

Shocking  and  cutting  by  hand  : 

After  binder,  two  men 3.6 

Cut  and  shock  by  hand,  one  man 1.4 


CHAPTER  16 
CORN  SILAGE* 

QILAGE  aids  the  farmer  to  utilize  fully  the  food  value  of  the  crop  which 
he  produces.  Corn  properly  stored  in  the  silo  saves  more  of  the  food 
value  of  the  plant  than  is  possible  by  any  other  method.  Not  only  is 
there  a  saving  in  food  value,  but  the  crop  may  then  be  fed  practically 
without  Avaste.     Silage  is  very  palatable  and  is  readily  eaten  by  almost 


Silage  is  a  cheap  I'eed  for  fattening  cattle. 

all  classes  of  farm  animals,  being  especially  well  suited  for  cattle  and 
sheep.  Silage  furnishes  a  succulent  feed  in  winter  when  greatly  needed 
and  is  also  a  valuable  supplement  in  late  summer  and  early  fall  when 
pastures  are  likely  to  be  short.  When  corn  is  harvested  as  silage,  the 
farmer  is  less  dependent  upon  the  weather  and  the  crop  is  stored  in  a 
smaller  space  and  more  convenient  form  for  feed  than  it  is  possible 
to  store  the  same  amount  of  corn  as  dry  fodder. 

Number  of  Silos 

The  use  of  silage   crops  dates   back   to  the   time  of   Caesar.     The 
Romans  stored  green  feeds  for  their  horses  in  the  ground.     The  Germans 


♦Varieties,    planting    and    harvesting    corn    for    silage    are    discussed    in 
Chapter  15. 


CORN  SILAGE  81 

made  use  of  silage  for  animal  feed  many  centuries  ago.  However,  silos 
have  been  in  use  in  the  United  States  only  during  the  last  half  century. 
Since  their  introduction,  the  number  has  increased  rapidly,  until  the 
"watch  towers  of  prosperity,"  as  they  are  called,  dot  the  entire  Corn 
Belt  and  the  great  dairy  states. 

There  are  about  half  a  million  silos  in  the  United  States,  of  which 
about  one-third  are  found  in  the  dairy  sections  of  Wisconsin,  New  York, 
Minnesota  and  New  England.  In  the  dairy  sections,  silos  are  found  on 
every  third  or  fourth  farm,  whereas,  in  the  Corn  Belt  proper,  silos  are 
found  on  about  one  farm  in  ten. 

Kinds  of  Silos 

There  are  many  kinds  of  silos  in  use  today,  but  there  are  onl}'  two 
general  types  of  silos,  as  follows : 

1.  Pit  silos — built  partially  or  wholly  below  ground. 

2.  Above-ground   silos — built  of  wood  or  masonry. 

The  first  type  is  found  only  in  the  western  edge  of  the  Corn  Belt 
and  the  plains  section.  The  second  type  includes  nearly  all  the  silos  of 
the  Corn  Belt.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  describe  the  building  of 
either  type.  But  the  desirable  features  of  a  Avell-built  silo  may  be  stated 
as  follows : 

1.  The  walls  should  be  as  air-tight  as  possible. 

2.  The  walls  should  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  silage. 

3.  The  inner  surface  of  the  wall  should  be  smooth. 

4.  The  location  and  constiniction  of  the  silo  should  prevent  freezing. 

5.  It  should  be  built  to  resist  high  winds. 

6.  It  should  be  cylindrical  in  shape  and  have  plenty  of  depth. 

7.  It  should  be  convenient  for  filling  and  emptying. 

S.     The  foundation  should  be  durable  and  extend  below  the  frost  line. 
9.     A  permanent  silo  of  neat  appearance  adds  much  to  the  farm. 
10.     The  silo  should  be  simple  in  construction  and  low  in  cost. 

What  Silage  Is 

Silage  is  finely  chopped  green  material  packed  in  an  air-tight  recep- 
tacle. All  reference,  unless  otherwise  noted,  Avill  be  to  corn  silage,  for 
it  is  the  common  silage  used.  The  making  of  silage  is  a  fermentation 
process,  which  begins  as  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled.  The  following  changes 
are  brought  about : 

1.  Increase  in  temperature — 85  to  90  degrees  F. 

2.  Evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas — dangerous  in  pit  silos. 

3.  Change  in  color — darker. 

4.  Aromatic  odor — desirable. 

5.  Formation    of    acids — 1    to    2    per   cent    of    weight. 

(a)  Lactic  acid — acid  of  sour  milk. 

(b)  Acetic  acid — acid   of  vinegar. 

6.  Formation  of  alcohols — 1  to  4  per  cent  weight. 

7.  Breaking  down  of  proteins — no  loss  to  silage. 

These  changes,  which  are  bacterial,  physical  and  chemical,  are  prac- 
tically completed  at  the  end  of  two  weeks,  and  the  silage  is  made.     Silage 


82  CORN  AND  (^ORN-GROWING 

may  be  kei)t  for  year^i  in  a  tight  silo  without  loss  of  palatability  or  vahie. 
However,  it  is  important  that  the  silajxe  be  weM  packed  and  the  silo 
tight,  because  air  permits  the  development  of  molds,  which  are  some- 
times poisonous,  and  -which  quickly  destroy  the  acids  and  thus  allow 
the  silage  to  spoil.  Bacteria  which  cause  decay  will  not  live  and  work 
in  the  presence  of  lactic  and  acetic  acids  when  no  air  is  present. 

Common  Yields  of  Silage 

Under  average  conditions,  a  fifty-bushel  crop  of  corn  will  protluce 
from  eight  to  twelve  tons  of  silage  per  acre.  Assuming  that  a  ton  of 
silage  contains  five  bushels  of  corn,  crops,  yielding  30,  40,  50,  60.  80  and 


Low-down  racks  save  labor  at  silo-filling  time. 

100  bushels  per  acre  will  produce  in  the  neighliorhood  of  6,  8,  10,  12  and 
20  tons  of  silage  per  acre,  respectively.  However,  the  variety,  soil,  rate 
of  planting,  etc.,  will  cause  the  number  of  bushels  in  a  ton  of  silage  to 
vary  from  three  to  eight. 

Culture  of  Corn  for  Silage 

Most  Corn  Belt  farmers  handle  corn  for  silage  in  the  same  way 
that  they  do  for  grain.  However,  the  possibilities  of  particular  varieties, 
increased  rate  of  planting,  and  time  and  method  of  cutting  corn  for  silage 
are  thoroughly  discussed  in  Chapter  15. 

Filling  the  Silo 

Most  of  the  corn  fodder  for  the  silo  is  hauled  on  ordinary  racks. 
There  are  some  advantages  in  loading  if  a  low-down  rack  is  used. 
The  general  custom  is  to  have  about  seven  wagons  hauling,  with  an  extra 


CORN  SILAGE  83 

man  at  the  cutter  to  help  unload.  Bundles  are  laid  flat  on  the  rack,  with 
butts  one  way.  Usually  the  bundles  are  hauled  as  soon  as  the  corn 
is  cut. 

The  man  who  feeds  the  corn  to  the  ensilage  cutter  affects  very 
directly  the  progress  which  is  made.  He  determines  the  length  of  the 
pieces  into  which  the  silage  is  cut.  An  important  precaution  is  to  see 
that  the  knives  of  the  cutter  are  sharp  at  all  times.  Two  or  three  sets 
of  knives  are  maintained  for  most  cutters,  so  that  they  may  be  changed 
or  re-sharpened  once  or  twice  a  day. 

Adequate  power  to  drive  the  cutter  is  another  pre-requisite  to  effi- 
cient silo-filling,  whether  the  sou.rce  of  power  be  a  gas  tractor  or  a  steam 
engine.  A  large  cutter  and  a  small  engine  will  slow  up  the  operations. 
Reserve  power  is  highly  important  if  the  cutter  is  to  be  run  smoothly 
;m(l  do  the  best  work. 

Short  Lengths 

31uch  difference  of  opinion  exists  regarding  the  length  to  cut  corn 
for  silage.  Some  farmers  prefer  one  and  one-half  inches,  while  others 
advocate  cutting  not  over  one-half  inch.  The  longer  cuts  are  more  eco- 
nomical of  power  and  the  silo  may  be  filled  more  rapidly,  but  the  silage 
will  not  pack  as  closely  in  the  silo.  Therefore,  it  may  not  keep  as  well, 
and  in  addition  there  is  more  waste  in  feeding.  All  things  considered, 
the  one-half  inch  or  three-quarter  inch  cut  is  probably  the  most  desir- 
al)!o.  as  it  packs  readilv  and  feeds  out  with  l)ut  little  waste. 

Distribute  and  Pack  Well 

The  heavy  and  liglit  portions  of  the  finely-cut  corn  must  be  uni- 
formly distributed.  The  heavy  part  of  ears  and  stalks  should  not  be 
in  the  center  or  on  one  side,  and  the  lighter  part,  such  as  leaves,  on  the 
other  side,  as  settling  will  be  uneven  and  much  spoiled  silage  will  likely 
result.  In  order  that  the  full  capacity  of  the  silo  may  be  utilized,  and 
at  the  same  time  insure  a  good  quality  of  silage,  it  is  essential  to  dis- 
tribute the  cut  corn  uniformly  and  tramp  firmly  all  parts  of  the  silo, 
especially  the  outer  edge.  The  work  of  distributing  the  cut  corn  and 
]->acking  it  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  ordinary  distributor. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  corn  is  placed  in  a  silo  within  a  short 
time,  a  considerable  settling  of  the  silage  results,  making  it  necessary 
to  refill  the  silo  within  a  few  days  in  order  to  utilize  the  full  capacity 
of  the  silo.  Where  two  silos  have  been  built  side  by  side,  filling  one 
for  a  day  and  then  filling  the  other  for  a  day  until  the  two  silos  are 
filled,  will  partially  overcome  the  difficulty  from  settling. 

Adding  Water 

If  corn  is  cut  at  the  proper  time,  good  silage  can  be  made  without 
adding  water.  Corn  in  the  silo  at  filling  time  should  feel  moist.  Briefh', 
water  should  be  added  to  corn  when  filling  the  silo  under  the  following 


84  CORN  AND  (^ORX-GROWTXG 

conditions :  First,  when  corn  is  too  ripe  and  does  not  pack  well  in  the 
silo ;  second,  Avhen  ref illintr  the  silo  in  the  late  fall  or  winter  with  dry 
shocked  corn. 

Preventing  Waste  on  Top 

Unless  feedin<>'  is  commenced  as  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled,  some  corn 
at  the  top  of  the  silo  Avill  spoil.  This  waste  may  be  partly  eliminated 
in  several  Avays.  First,  level  off  the  surface  and  tramp  firmly.  Some 
farmers  use  finely  cut  straw  or  chaff  from  the  straw  stack  thoroughly 
packed  and  Avet  down,  to  cover  the  top.  Others  soak  the  top  with  water 
and  sow  oats.  The  oats  sprout  and  make  a  thick  covering  which  keeps 
out  the  air  and  reduces  the  waste.  Satisfactory  results  have  come  from 
the  use  of  tar  paper  spread  over  the  surface  and  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  cut  corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed.  In  any  case, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  jiull  the  ears  off  the  last  load  of  corn  wliieh  is  ]Mit 
into  the  silo. 

Opening  the  Silo 

Corn  may  be  fed  as  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled,  but  for  the  first  few 
days,  it  is  nothing  but  green  corn  finely  cut.  When  handled  in  this 
way,  there  is  no  waste  on  the  top  of  the  silo.  During  the  first  ten  days 
or  two  weeks,  fermentation  takes  place,  and  the  corn  is  gradually 
changed  to  silage.  When  allowed  to  stand  for  a  time  before  using,  some 
corn  at  the  top  of  the  silo  Avill  spoil  and  before  feeding  is  begun  this 
spoiled  layer  should  be  removed. 

Refilling  the  Silo 

After  the  contents  of  the  silo  have  been  fed  out,  the  silo  may  be  re- 
filled Avith  dry  shocked  fodder,  if  it  is  available.  Dry  corn  put  in  the 
silo  makes  a  very  satisfactory  feed,  but  it  is  not  as  high  in  value  as  silage 
from  corn  put  in  at  the  proper  stage.  In  refilling  a  silo  with  dry  corn 
fodder,  about  250  gallons,  or  one  ton,  of  Avater  should  be  added  to  each 
ton  of  dry  fodder.  The  Avater  may  be  run  in  the  top  of  the  bloAver  Avith 
a  hose.  It  is  not  desirable  to  alloAV  the  Avater  to  run  in  one  place,  as 
it  Avill  folloAv  channels,  and  leaves  parts  of  the  silage  practically  dry, 
resulting  in  much  spoiled  feed.  Corn  stover  may  be  used  in  the  above 
Avay.  HoAvever,  its  feeding  value  is  much  loAver  than  silage  made  from 
fodder.     These  types  of  silage  should  be  made  not  later  than  February  1. 

Frosted  Corn  Silage 

If  the  corn  which  is  to  be  used  for  silage  is  frosted  while  still  quite 
immature,  it  is  best  to  cut  it  soon  after  frost,  to  avoid  loss  of  leaves  and 
alloAV  the  corn  to  cure  out  to  some  extent  before  putting  it  in  the  silo. 
In  1915,  Avhen  much  immature  corn  Avas  liar\'ested  for  silage,  many 
farmers  cut  their  frosted  corn,  cured  it  in  the  shock,  and  filled 
their  silos  later   in   the  season,   adding  Avater   to   facilitate   the   pack- 


CORN  SILAGE  85 

ing  of  the  silage.  Some  of  the  farmers  who  put  this  kind  of  corn  into 
the  silo  immediately,  found  that  the  silage  produced  Avas  very  watery. 
Soft  corn  silage  is  discussed  in  Chapter  14. 

Corn  Silage  Versus  Other  Silage 

As  far  as  its  content  of  protein  and  sugar  is  concerned,  the  corn 
plant  furnishes  the  most  nearly  ideal  single  plant  material  for  silage. 
Plants  similar  to  the  legumes  contain  too  much  protein  material  in  pro- 
portion to  the  sugar  content.  Sunflowers  give  a  large  tonnage,  but  a 
coarser  silage.  Dairy  sections  in  the  southern  Corn  Belt  infested  with 
the  chinch  bug  have  grown  sunflowers  for  silage  with  only  fair  results. 

Legumes,  especially  soy  beans,  have  been  mixed  with  corn  for  silage. 
Ordinary  corn  and  soy  bean  silage,  resulting  from  growing  the  two  crops 
together  in  the  same  field,  usually  has  ten  parts  of  green  corn  to  one 
part  of  soy  beans.  The  Indiana  experiments  indicate  that  the  advan- 
tage of  corn  and  soy  bean  silage  is  more  theoretical  than  actual.  Ap- 
parently, any  slight  increase  in  the  value  of  the  silage  per  ton,  or  in 
the  yield  of  the  mixture  per  acre,  is  counterbalanced  by  the  cost  of  the 
soy  bean  seed  and  by  the  extra  bother  involved  in  handling  the  mixture. 

Characteristics  of  Good  Silage 

In  buying,  feeding  or  judging  silage,  it  is  well  to  know  the  charac- 
teristics of  good  silage.  Good  silage  should  have  the  following  char- 
acteristics : 

1.  Cut  in  short  half-inch  lengths  (not  long  shreds). 

2.  Very  leafy  with  few  coarse  stalks. 

3.  A  large  amount  of  grain   in  the  stover. 

4.  Sweet  and  free  from  all  molds. 

5.  Sharp  odors  of  acid. 

6.  No  odor  of  spoiled  butter. 

7.  Even  distribution  of  moisture. 

8.  From  60  to  74  per  cent  moisture. 

9.  Light  in  color. 
10.  Palatable. 

Measuring  and  Valuing  Silage 

To  measure  silage,  square  the  diameter  and  multiply  by  .7854,  and 
then  by  the  depth  of  settled  silage.  This  gives  the  number  of  cubic 
feet.  If  not  much  silage  has  been  fed  out,  allow  40  pounds  to  the  cubic 
foot.  In  the  bottom  one-third  of  the  silo,  allow  43  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.  A  ton  of  average  Corn  Belt  silage  is  worth  the  value  of  five  bush- 
els of  corn  plus  300  pounds  of  loose  hay. 


CHAPTER  17 

HARVESTING  WITH  LIVE  STOCK 

npHERE  are  three  general  ways  of  harvesting  the  standing  corn  crop 
with  live  stock.     Hogging-down,  however,  is  the  only  common  prac- 
tice.    These  ways,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are : 

1.  Harvesting  with  hogs — hogging-down. 

2.  Harvesting  with  sheep — sheeping-down. 

3.  Harvesting  with  cattle  and  horses. 

Hogging-Down 

Hogging-down  corn  is  a  practical  and  efficient  way  of  gathering 
the  crop  and  feeding  spring  pigs  which  are  to  be  finished  for  the  early 
winter  market.  Farmers  who  have  tried  it  are  almost  unanimously 
agreed  that  the  method  is  economical  and  successful.  The  most  enthu- 
siastic hogging-down  men  are  those  who  have  followed  the  method 
longest.  Tests  show  that  hogging-down  gives  as  good  results  as  dry 
lot  feeding. 

Fifteen  advantages  of  hogging-down,  according  to  the  Iowa  sta- 
tion, are : 

1.  Labor  is  saved. 

2.  Storage   charges  on   corn  are   saved. 

3.  Returns  are  equally  as  good. 

4.  The  hogs  develop  good  constitutions. 

5.  No  manure  is  lost. 

6.  The  manure  is  evenly  and  uniformly  distributed. 

7.  The  crop  is  harvested  without  waste. 
S.  The  weeds  may  be  cleaned  up. 

9.  Hogs  may  follow  cattle  in  the   field. 

10.  Facilitates  and  encourages  the  gathering  of  seed  corn. 

11.  Poor  stands  of  corn  may  be  taken  advantage  of. 

12.  Under  certain  conditions  brood  sows  may  be  run  in  the  field. 

13.  Fall  plowing  is  sometimes  possible. 

14.  Organic  plant  material  will  be  largely  added. 

15.  Corn  is  harvested  more  quickly. 

However,  the  practice  has  some  drawbacks.  Twelve  disadvantages, 
according  to  the  Iowa  station,  are : 

1.  Hardens  the  soil  if  pastured  when  wet. 

2.  Some  waste  of  corn  in  wet  weather. 

3.  A  loss  of  stover. 

4.  Difficulty  of  fencing. 

5.  Brood   sows  and  gilts  get  too  fat. 

6.  Takes  extra  care  to  turn  hogs  into  new  corn. 

7.  Heavy  hogs  may  waste  some  corn. 

8.  Hogs  do  not  gain  well  after  hogging-down. 


HARVESTING  WITH   LIVE   STOCK  87 

9.  Likelihood  of  neglecting  hogs. 

10.  More  liable  to  sickness. 

11.  Stalks  are  hard  to  plow  under. 

12.  Several  minor  disadvantages. 

Variety  of  Corn  to  Use 

The  highest  yielding  corn  which  is  adapted  to  the  locality  is  the 
variety  to  use  for  hogging-down.  The  hogging-doAvn  season  may  be 
lengthened  by  having  a  small  field  of  an  early  variety  of  corn  on  which 
to  turn  the  hogs  early  in  the  fall.  In  the  North,  hogging-down  is  the 
only  practical  way  of  harvesting  short-stalked  varieties  such  as  the  early 
flints.  Sweet  corn  does  not  produce  as  much  pork  as  field  corn,  because 
it  does  not  yield  so  well. 

The  Principle  to  Follow 

The  Iowa  station  says  that  hogs  can  gather  their  own  corn  to  ad- 
vantage by  making  efficient  use  of  the  grain  eaten  as  they  carry  on 
their  labor-saving  and  fattening  campaign.  However,  results  show  that 
in  the  corn  field,  as  in  the  dry  lot  or  in  the  pasture,  the  same  general 
principles  of  nutrition  govern  the  hogs'  appetites,  digestion  assimila- 
tion, growth  and  fattening.  It  is  necessary  to  know  where  the  protein 
is  coming  from  to  grow  the  pigs.  Although  corn  field  weeds,  such  as 
purslane,  lamb's  quarter,  pigweed  and  morning-glory,  furnish  some 
protein,  the  average  hog  is  in  need  of  more  bone  and  muscle-building 
material  than  he  can  get  in  the  corn  field.  Some  means  should  be  pro- 
vided to  supply  supplements  to  the  corn  crop. 

Supplements  Necessary 

Tankage  or  some  other  supplement  furnishing  high  quality  protein 
equally  cheaply,  should  be  fed  when  hogging-down  a  field  of  corn.  It 
seems  to  be  far  more  important  to  feed  tankage  than  to  grow  soy  beans 
or  rape  with  the  corn.  And  even  though  a  stand  is  obtained  of  the  soy 
beans  or  rape,  it  is  still  advisable  to  use  the  tankage.  "Weaver,  of  the 
IMissouri  station,  gives  the  following  average  results  for  hogging-down 
corn  and  soy  beans,  with  and  without  tankage,  during  the  years  1919, 
1920  and  1921 : 


Hogging-down  corn   (courtesy  of  Iowa  Station). 


88 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 
Table  IX 


Weight  (in  pounds)  and  Yield  (in  bushels) 


Hogs  in  lot I    15 


Days  fed 

Average   initial    weight 

Average  final  weight 

Total    gain 

Average  daily  gain  per  head 

Tankage,    total 

Average  daily  tankage  per  head. 

Tankage  per  pound  of  gain 

Yield  of  corn 

Yield  of  soy  beans — seed 


34.9 
3.39 


43.06 


Rape,  soy  beans,  eowpeas  (in  the  southern  Corn  Belt),  pumpkins 
and  rye  are  grown  in  the  corn  field  for  hogging-down.  The  value  and 
the  method  of  planting  these  crops  in  the  corn  field  are  discussed  in 
Chapter  18.  Hogs  running  in  the  corn  field  will  utilize  the  corn  to 
better  advantage  and  require  less  tankage  if  they  may  run  on  a  clover, 
alfalfa,  rape  or  blue  grass  pasture  adjoining  the  corn  field. 

Other  Essentials 

It  is  essential  that  the  hogs  be  put  on  a  full  feed  of  corn  before 
being  turned  into  the  corn  field.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  feed  green 
corn  fodder  with  the  old  corn  so  that  the  hogs  will  get  accustomed  to 
their  new  ration.  The  feeding  of  oats  will  help  somewhat  in  counter- 
acting the  laxative  effects  of  feeding  the  green  corn.  If  the  hogs  come 
in  at  night,  feed  them  some  old  corn  before  turning  them  out  in  the 
morning. 

Hogs  do  better  when  an  abundance  of  water  and  shade  are  pro- 
vided. Clean,  clear  tile  water  is  good  if  the  land  from  which  it  comes 
is  free  from  cholera  and  other  contagious  infection.  Clear  creeks  of 
known  source  and  fresh  springs  are  good  drinking  places  for  hogs.  The 
ordinary  barrel  water  works  well  in  most  places.  The  value  of  plenty 
of  clean,  fresh  water  for  hogs  in  the  corn  field  can  not  be  over-empha- 
sized. 

Carrying  Capacity  of  Corn 

Usually  the  field  should  be  fenced,  so  that  small  areas  may  be 
harvested  at  a  time.  It  is  well  to  hog-off  an  area  in  three  weeks,  and 
better  in  two  weeks.  Spring  shotes  weighing  90  to  130  pounds  are 
desirable  for  hogging-down  corn.  According  to  the  IMinnesota  station, 
it  will  require  the  following  number  of  days  to  hog  off  an  acre  of  corn 
with  125-pound  pigs : 


HARVESTING  WITH  LIVE   STOCK 


89 


Table  X 


Approximate  No.  of  Days 

Number  of  Pigs  Weighing  125  Pounds 

0/ 

u 

t 

il 

22.5 

11.2 

5.6 

y 

i 
Ji 

30.0 

15.0 

7.5 

O 

is 

37.5 

18.7 

9.3 

« 

0) 

le 

§8 

45.0 
22.5 
11.2 

0) 

Is 

?8 

10                   

52.5 

''O 

26.2 

40    

14.1 

Sheeping-Down  Corn 

The  practice  of  turning  lambs  into  the  corn  field  at  the  rate  of 
.six  or  seven  per  acre,  to  clean  up  weeds  and  the  lower  leaves  of  corn, 
is  a  good  one.  Turning  in  twenty  to  forty  lambs  per  acre  to  harvest 
the  corn  crop  is  more  doubtful,  for  the  reason  that  the  lambs  are  ready 
to  go  back  to  market  at  the  time  when  the  fat  lamb  market  is  usually 
low,  and,  moreover,  there  is  often  some  death  loss  when  the  lambs  first 
start  to  eating  corn. 

In  the  latter  practice,  all  of  the  essentials,  such  as  providing  proper 
forage,  water,  shelter,  fencing,  salt,  the  right  kind  of  animals,  and  proper 
management  are  similar  and  equally  as  important  for  sheep  as  for  hogs. 
It  is  profitable  to  have  additional  pasture  and  forage  outside  of  the 


Sheeping-down  corn. 


corn  field  for  the  lambs.  Plenty  of  rough  feed  should  be  supplied  so 
that  the  lambs  will  not  eat  too  much  corn.  The  same  forages,  soy  beans, 
cowpeas  or  rape,  as  sown  in  the  corn  field  for  hogs,  may  be  used  for 
sheeping-down.  At  the  Nebraska  station,  they  found  it  advisable  to 
feed  the  average  lamb  in  the  corn  field  one-fourth  of  a  pound  of  oil  meal 
daily. 

Thrifty  lambs,  weighing  from  45  to  60  pounds,  are  desirable  ani- 
mals for  sheeping  doAvn  corn.     Older  sheep  are  all  right  if  not  too  de- 


90  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

fective  in  the  teeth  to  eat  corn  readily.  The  feeders  should  be  started 
slowly  on  the  corn  to  keep  doAvn  scours  and  bloat.  Extreme  precaution 
and  common  sense  should  be  used  in  turniuo-  the  lambs  into  the  corn 
field. 

Lambs  turned  in  the  corn  field  late  in  September  will  gain  from 
tAvelve  to  twenty  pounds  per  head  in  a  feeding  period  of  from  two  to 
three  months.  During  the  feeding  period  the  lambs  will  harvest  one 
or  two  bushels  of  corn  each,  depending  on  the  amount  of  supplementary 
feed.  Small  areas  should  be  sheeped-doAvn  and  the  lambs  moved  before 
they  have  to  hunt  for  feed.  Shotes  running  with  the  lambs  or  turned 
in  the  field  afterwards  will  clean  up  the  corn  left  by  the  lambs. 

Harvesting  With  Horses  and  Cattle 

Horses  and  cattle  may  be  used  to  harvest  the  corn  from  the  stand- 
ing stalks  in  the  field.  However,  the  disadvantages  of  packed  soil,  waste 
and  fencing  difficulties,  are  more  pronounced  than  in  hogging-down. 
This  method  of  harvesting  is  not  a  widespread  practice,  and  is  not  used 
except  in  case  of  very  cheap  corn  when  husking  is  high-priced  or  labor 
is  difficult  to  get.  It  is  better  to  husk  the  corn  fairly  clean  and  turn  in 
the  horses  and  cattle  to  pasture  the  stalks  and  clean  up  the  corn  remain- 
ing in  the  field. 


CHAPTER  18 

COMPANION  CROPS  FOR  CORN 

/^CCASIONALLY,  other  crops  are  grown  with  corn  to  balance  the 
corn  ration  for  animals  and  to  utilize  the  ground  better.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  returns  warrant  either  reason.  At  any  rate,  there  are  many 
essentials  and  precautions  to  keep  in  mind  in  order  to  get  the  most  out 
of  an  acre  of  corn  and  to  feed  the  crop  profitably. 

The  crops  ordinaril.y  planted  with  corn  are  soy  beans,  rape,  cowpeas 
(in  the  southern  Corn  Belt),  and  sometimes  pumpkins.  Clover  and  rye 
have  been  sown  in  corn  just  before  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn,  with 
varj^ing  success.  Usually,  the  lack  of  moisture  causes  i)Oor  results  and 
makes  it  a  poor  practice.  The  crop  sown  with  corn  should  be  well 
adapted  to  the  locality  and  add  more  to  the  combination  than  it  takes 
away. 

Soy  Beans 

Soy  beans  are  a  comparatively  new  crop  in  America,  especially  in 
the  Corn  Belt.  Trials  during  the  last  twenty  years  have  shown  the 
crop  to  have  a  wide  range  of  adaptation,  including  all  the  corn  and  cot- 
ton lands  of  the  country.  The  seeds  are  four  times  as  rich  in  protein 
and  fat  as  shelled  corn. 

The  most  popular  use  of  soy  beans  in  the  Corn  Belt  is  for  planting 
with  corn  for  hogging-down  or  for  silage.  Over  70  per  cent  of  the  soy 
beans  grown  in  the  Corn  Belt  are  planted  with  corn  for  hogging-down. 
The  beans  are  planted  at  the  same  time  as  the  corn.  They  are  erect- 
growing  annuals  which  do  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  corn  or 
with  cultivation.  The  cost  of  cultivation  is  not  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  beans,  and  the  feeding  value  of  the  corn  is  improved.  There 
is  no  real  difficulty  in  handling  the  beans  with  corn  for  silage. 

Effect  of  Yield  on  Corn 
When  sown  at  the  ordinary  rate  of  three  beans  with  three  kernels 
of  corn  per  hill,  most  experiment  stations  agree  that  there  is  some  re- 
duction in  yield  of  corn.  Practical  farmers,  however,  .seem  to  be  of  one 
opinion,  that  the  total  feeding  value  of  the  crop  is  increased.  The 
amount  of  the  decrease  in  the  corn  yield  will  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  the  amount  of  moisture  and  plant  food  available  for  the  crop.  If 
there  is  sufficient  of  each  for  both  crops,  little  decrease  in  the  yield  of 
corn  can  be  noticed,  but  if  the  crop  is  struck  by  drouth,  the  corn  will 
suffer  before  the  beans. 

Method  of  Planting 

The  most  practical  method  of  planting  beans  with  corn  is  to  place 
the  beans  in  the  hills  of  corn  at  the  same  time  the  corn  is  planted.     This 


92  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

is  best  accomplished  by  means  of  a  bean  attachment  for  the  planter, 
which  is  operated  by  the  check  wire  the  same  as  the  corn  planter.  It 
is  also  possible  to  drill  corn  and  drill  beans  at  the  same  time,  or  to  check 
corn  and  drill  beans  between  the  hills.  The  latter  method  has  given 
greater  yields  of  both  corn  and  beans  than  hills  of  corn  and  beans  to- 
gether, but  there  are  disadvantages  in  the  cultivation  of  such  a  planting. 
Beans  and  corn  may  be  mixed  and  planted  from  the  corn  planter  box, 
but  this  is  not  so  satisfactorj',  as  an  uneven  stand  of  corn  often  results 
because  the  beans  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  planter  box  faster  than  the 
corn.  Practical  farmers,  by  adding  a  handful  or  so  of  beans  on  top  of 
the  corn  at  each  round,  can  overcome  this  objection  to  some  extent. 

Rate  of  Seeding 

About  three  beans  per  hill  of  corn  should  be  planted.  The  greater 
the  number  of  beans  per  hill,  the  greater  the  reduction  in  the  yield  of 
corn. 

If  three  beans  are  planted  per  hill,  the  pounds  of  beans  required  for 
each  acre  are  as  follows : 

Pounds 

Manchu    (large    seed) 5.0 

Medium  green    (large  seed) 5.0 

Ito  San   (medium  seed) 3.5 

Chestnut    (medium    seed) 3.5 

Ebony    (medium   seed) 3.5 

Midwest  (medium  to  small  seed) 3.0 

Peking   (small  seed) 2.0 

One  bushel  of  beans,  therefore,  will  plant  from  twelve  to  thirty 
acres,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  beans. 

Varieties 

The  several  hundred  varieties  of  soy  beans  are  as  different  as  are 
varieties  of  corn,  and  much  of  the  success  in  soy  bean  growing  depends 
upon  the  choice  of  the  proper  variety.  To  be  planted  with  corn,  a 
variety  must  be  chosen  that  will  ripen  with  the  variety  of  corn  that  is 
used  as  the  companion  crop.  For  silage  and  sheeping-down,  a  later 
variety  may  be  used,  but  for  hogging-down  the  soy  bean  variety  should 
be  matured  when  the  hogs  are  turned  in.  The  early  varieties,  like  Ito 
San  and  Chestnut,  rij^en  readily  in  the  most  northern  states.  The  mid- 
.season  kinds,  like  Peking,  INIanchu  and  IMedium  Green,  mature  in  the 
Corn  Belt. 

Inoculation 

Inoculation  is  an  important  factor  on  most  Corn  Belt  soils.  The 
inoculation  of  the  seed  or  soil  is  simply  applying  some  substance  that 
is  known  to  carry  live  bacteria.  On  fields  that  have  grown  a  successful 
crop  of  soy  beans  during  the  past  three  or  four  years,  the  bacteria  are 
usually  present  in  .sufficient  numbers.  On  other  fields,  they  should  be 
supplied  in  order  to  insure  maximum  yields.  Inoculation,  however,  is 
not  absolutely  necessary  for  the  production  of  a  crop. 


COMPANION  CROPS  FOR  CORN 


93 


There  are  various  methods  of  inoculation.  An  easy  method  is  to 
use  soil  from  a  field  that  has  grown  a  successful  crop  of  soy  beans  dur- 
ing the  previous  year.  Dry  it  in  a  shadj^  place  and  when  the  soil  is 
dry  enough  to  sieve  through  a  piece  of  screen  wire,  spread  the  seed  about 
two  or  three  inches  deep  on  a  clean  place.     Make  a  solution  of  one-half 


Soy  beans  in  corn  furnish  green  feed  rich  in  protein. 

cup  of  sugar  to  one  quart  of  hot  water  for  each  bushel  of  beans.  When 
the  solution  is  cool,  sprinkle  it  over  the  beans  to  make  them  sticky.  Sift 
the  soil  uniformly  over  the  moist  beans.  After  drying  a  few  hours,  the 
beans  are  ready  to  plant. 

In  case  no  inoculated  soil  is  at  hand,  commercial  cultures  may  be 
used  with  good  results.  These  cultures  may  be  purchased  from  any 
seed  house.  The  method  of  application  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
one  mentioned,  except  that  hot  water  must  not  be  used.  Directions  for 
the  use  of  commercial  cultures  always  accompany  the  package  and  have 
l)een  found  to  be  reliable.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  wet  the  beans 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  seed  coats  will  swell  enough  to  break. 

Rape 

Rape  is  closely  related  to  cabbage,  turnips  and  rutabagas.  The  seed, 
the  root  system  and  the  smooth,  large,  succulent  leaves  resemble  those 


94  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

of  cabbage,  but  there  is  no  tendency  to  form  a  head.  The  plant  urows 
two  feet  tall  under  average  conditions,  and  on  rich,  moist  soil  will  grow 
three  or  more  feet  in  height. 

Rape  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  pasture  crops  which  can  be  seeded 
in  the  corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  and  is  more  valuable  than  soy  beans 
in  corn,  if  a  stand  can  be  obtained.  However,  because  of  lack  of  mois- 
ture, a  stand  of  rape  in  corn  about  twice  in  every  five  3'ears,  is  all  that 
may  be  expected.  But  since  rape  seed  rarely  costs  more  than  13  cents 
a  pound,  and  the  total  cost  of  seeding  will  not  exceed  75  cents  an  acre, 
farmers  can  afford  to  seed  rape  annually  with  the  expectancy  of  get- 
ting stands  twice  out  of  five  years.  The  corn  and  rape  growth  can  be 
harvested  profitably  by  hogging  down  or  Ity  pasturin-z'  with  sheep  in 
the  fall.  The  leafy  plants  also  tend  to  shade  the  ground  sufficiently  to 
keep  the  land  free  of  weeds.  Rape  has  little  effect  on  the  yield  of  corn 
in  the  average  year,  reducing  the  corn  yield  about  one-half  bushel. 

Method  of  Planting 

The  seed  is  generally  scattered  with  a  hand  seeder  at  the  rate  of 
three  to  five  pounds  per  acre,  immediately  preceding  the  last  cultiva- 
tion, which  should  be  shallow.  It  may  be  sown  a  little  later  with  a  one- 
horse  drill,  but  the  delay  in  time  of  seeding  and  the  additional  labor 
are  objections  which  jirobably  more  than  offset  the  advantage  of  pro- 
viding a  more  uniform  distribution  and  covering  of  the  seed.  The  suc- 
cess of  late  seedings  depends  largely  on  the  rainfall  during  July  and 
August. 

Varieties 

There  are  two  types  of  rape,  the  winter  or  biennial  and  the  summer 
or  annual.  The  biennial  kind  lives  two  years  where  the  winters  are 
extremely  mild,  as  in  the  South  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  in  the  Gorn 
Belt  the  plants  are  killed  by  hard  freezes  in  late  fall,  so  it  is  necessary 
to  make  new  seedings  every  year.  The  summer  or  annual  type,  which 
is  also  known  as  "bird-seed"  rape,  produces  seed  the  first  season,  but 
the  plants  do  not  make  sufficient  growth  to  be  of  value  for  forage.  The 
winter  or  biennial  kind,  usually  known  as  Dwarf  Essex  rape,  is  tlic  o:i\v 
one  recojumended  for  Corn  Belt  seeding. 

Cowpeas 

In  the  southern  Corn  Belt  and  in  the  South,  the  cowpeas  make  a 
good  growth  when  ]ilanted  with  corn.  The  crop  requires  more  heat  than 
corn  and  is  not  grown  to  any  extent  north  of  the  southern  line  of  Iowa. 
Many  of  the  things  said  about  soy  beans  apply  to  cowpeas.  However, 
the  cowpea  is  a  vining  plant  and  not  erect-growing  like  the  soy  bean. 
Cowpeas  succeed  on  poorer  soils  better  than  soy  beans.  They  should 
not  be  planted  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warm.  Similarly  to  soy  beans, 
the  crop  may  be  sown  with  corn  in  one  operation  with  the  ordinary  corn 
planter.     Broadcasted  in  the  corn  and  covered  at  the  last  cultivation. 


COMPANION  CROPS  FOR  CORN  95 

they  should  be  sown  about  one  bushel  to  the  acre.  If  cowpeas  have 
been  grown  in  a  locality  for  a  long-  time,  inoculation  will  not  be  neces- 
sary.    The  Whippoorwill.  New  Era  and  Iron  are  common  varieties. 

Pumpkins 

According  to  the  Iowa  exj^eriment  station,  pumpkins  are  often 
used  to  advantage  with  corn.  The  seed  is  planted  in  either  missing 
hills  or  adjacent  to  every  third  hill.  Corn  planters  are  now  available 
with  a  pumpkin  seed  attachment.  On  a  fertile  soil  the  pumpkins  do 
not  seriously  interfere  with  the  corn  crop  and  are  an  added  source  of 
revenue,  yielding  from  two  to  three  tons  per  acre. 

Many  of  the  canning  factories  are  ready  to  contract  for  this  crop  in 
the  spring-  at  a  specified  price,  or  it  may  be  fed  to  the  stock.  From  two 
to  three  tons  per  acre  is  a  common  yield,  depending  on  the  severity  of 
injury  from  the  bugs  when  the  plants  are  small  and  an  adequate  moisture 
supply  when  the  pumpkins  are  filling  out. 

Other  Crops 

Clovers,  alfalfa  and  rye  have  been  sown  in  corn  just  before  the  last 
cultivation  of  the  crop,  with  varying  success.  Usually  the  lack  of  mois- 
ture causes  poor  results.  It  is  not  a  widespread  practice  and  is  not 
recommended.  IMany  other  crops  may  be  sown  with  corn,  but  usually 
to  no  advantage. 


CHAPTER  19 


FEEDING  CORN  TO  LIVE  STOCK 


r^ORN  is  the  basis  of  the  live  stock  grain  ration  in  the  Corn  Belt,  for 
it  is  (1)  plentiful,  (2)  easily  obtained,  (3)  comparatively  cheap, 
(4)  palatable  to  all  classes  of  live  stock,  (5)  high  in  carbohydrates,  and 
(6)  low  in  crude  fiber.  Corn  is  a  carbohydrate  or  starchy  feed,  rich 
in  energy,  fat  and  heat-forming  material,  but  it  is  low  in  protein  and 
ash — bone  and  muscle-building  material.  The  protein  which  the  kernel 
does  contain  is  inefficient  and  unbalanced.  About  58  per  cent  of  the 
protein  is  zein,  which  lacks  some  of  the  amino  acids  necessary  for  animal 
growth. 

Composition  of  Corn 

The  average  percentage  composition  of  some  of  the  common  carbo- 
hydrate grains,  as  given  by  Henry  and  Morrison,  is  as  follows : 

Table  XI 


Grain 


Dent  Corn  No.  3. 

Wheat   

Oats  

Barley  

Rye   


'S 
o 

Carboh 

ydrates 

ja 

3 

W 
fc 

^ 

< 

U 

i^ 

^ 

16.5 

1.4 

9.4 

1.9 

66.11 

10.2 

1.9 

12.4 

2.2 

71.2i 

9.2 

3.5 

12.4 

10.9 

59.61 

9.3 

2.7 

11.5 

4.6 

69.81 

1           9.4 

2.0 

11.8 

l.S 

73.2 

4.7 
2.1 
4.4 
2.1 

1.8 


It  will  be  noted  in  Table  XI  that  corn,  wheat  and  rye  each  contain 
about  2  per  cent  fiber,  whereas  barley  contains  more  than  twice  as  much 
fiber  as  corn,  and  oats  contain  five  or  six  times  as  much.  In  the  case  of 
hogs,  each  1  per  cent  of  excess  fiber  lowers  the  feeding  value  by  5  per 
cent.  Fiber  is  not  so  important  with  horses  and  cattle,  and  for  this 
rea.son  oats  are  much  more  efficiently  utilized  by  this  class  of  live  stock 
than  by  hogs. 

The  following  table  from  ''Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by  Henry  and  Mor- 
rison, shows  the  average  digestible  nutrients  and  the  nutritive  ratio  of 
the  common  grains : 


FEEDING  CORN  TO  LIVE  STOCK 
Table  XII 


97 


Dent  Corn  No.  3. 

Wheat   

Rye  

Oats   

Barley   


^ 

<v 

cc 

CL 

rt 

c 

q; 

^s 

-S-s 

S£ 

1^ 

2R 

^-Z 

Fat 

Nut 
rati 

b^-a 

U  ft 

Ox: 

83.5 

7.0 

63.3| 

4.3|  1:10.4 

S9.8 

9.2 

67.51 

1.5|  1:   7.7 

90.6|       9.9|     68.4| 

1.2|  1:   7.2 

90.81       9.7|     52.11 

3.8|  1:    6.2 

90.7| 

9.0 

66.8| 

1.61  1:   7.8 

Value  of  Corn  as  a  Feed 

Corn  is  the  premier  feed  for  fattenin<i-  live  stock.  It  also  holds 
a  prominent  place  in  the  rations  for  breedin"-  and  orowino'  stock,  but 
it  is  especially  necessary  with  such  animals  to  supplement  the  corn  with 
feeds  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 

In  chemical  composition,  different  colors  of  corn  are  the  same. 
However,  the  feeder  has  always  noticed  that  live  stock  prefer  yellow 


Half  the  corn  of  the  Corn  Belt  is  fed  to  hogs 

corn.  Experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  station  indicate  that  yellow  corn 
contains  Vitamin  A,  which  i.s  lacking-  in  white  corn.  Flint  corn  is  hard- 
er than  dent  corn,  and  may  be  more  difficult  for  live  stock  to  eat.  An 
experiment  at  the  Illinois  station  indicated  that  hogs  would  eat  about 
four  pounds  per  day  of  Democrat  corn  (a  hard  corn,  but  not  a  flint)  ; 
whereas,  of  Silvermine  (a  moderately  hard  corn)  they  would  eat  about 
five  pounds.  Moreover,  the  hogs  required  about  8  per  cent  less  of  the 
softer  Silvermine  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  than  they  did  of  the 
somewhat  harder  Democrat. 


98  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

The  following:  table  gives  the  comparative  values  of  corn  and  other 
feeds  based  on  chemical  analj'ses,  as  given  in  Table  I  of  Henry  and  ]\Ior- 
rison's  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  when  nitrogen-free  extract  (starch)  is 
valued  at  1.2  cents  per  pound,  fat  at  3  cents  a  pound,  and  protein  at  5 
cents  a  pound. 

Table  XIII 

GRAINS  Value  Per  Bu. 

Corn,  No.  3 $     .78 

Oats   47 

Barley    71 

Rye    85 

Wheat    92 

Soy  beans  1.60 

*ROUGHAGE  Value  Per  Ton 

Clover    Hav    24.00 

Timothy  18.40 

Alfalfa    25.20 

Oat  Straw 14.80 

COMMERCIAL  FEEDS 

Bran  31.60 

Shorts  34.00 

Hominy  Feed  30.80 

Oil  Meal   (old  process)   47.00 

tCottonseed  meal  (39  per  cent)  51.40 

Tankage  (60  per  cent)   65.80 

Gluten  Feed   40.40 

Soy  Bean  Oil  Meal  54.20 

Corn  Oil  Cake  Meal  40.20 

Barley,  wheat  and  rye,  if  they  are  to  have  a  feeding  value  a;  h'lr'.i 
in  relation  to  corn  as  indicated  in  this  table,  must  be  ground. 

In  years  of  large  corn  crops,  it  may  be  advisable  to  value  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract  at  1  cent  a  pound  or  even  less,  Avhereas  protein  may  still 
be  worth  5  cents  a  pound.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  re-calculate  this 
table  if  it  is  to  fit  changing  conditions  from  year  to  year. 

No  animal  can  make  satisfactory  growth  on  corn  alone.  In  the 
case  of  hogs,  the  bone  and  muscle-building  material  in  which  corn  is 
lacking  may  be  supplied  b}^  small  amounts  of  tankage,  oil  meal,  dairy 
by-products,  pasture,  or  alfalfa  or  clover  hay.  With  cattle  and  sheep, 
oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  clover  hay,  alfalfa  hay,  or  pasture  most  com- 
monly supply  the  necessary  ]')rotein  and  mineral  matter. 
Importance  in  Feeding  Operations 

Eighty-  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  is  fed  to  live  stock.  In  growing 
corn,  therefore,  it  should  constantly  be  kept  in  mind  that  live  stock,  in 
all  probability,  will  be  the  final  market.  The  outstanding  problem  of 
the  Corn  Belt  is  to  obtain  the  greatest  po.ssible  number  of  pounds  of 
live  stock  from  each  acre  of  land  at  the  least  expenditure  of  human 
labor.  Any  step  forward  which  results  in  the  economic  production  of 
more  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  is  fundamental  to  solving  this  problem. 

*When  digestibility  is  taken  into  account,  these  hay  values  are  about  15 
per  cent  too  high. 

tFeeding  tests  indicate  that  cottonseed  meal  is  worth  only  about  85  per 
cent  as  much  as  the  chemical  analysis  value  used  above. 


CHAPTER  20 


MARKETING  CORN 


y^BOUT  250,000,000  bushels  aniiuallr,  or  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  Corn 

Belt  production,  passes  through  such  large  primary  corn  markets 

as  Chicago.   Omaha,  Peoria,  Indianapolis,   St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City. 


CORN  SOLD  OR  TO  BE  SOLD 
1919 


Alost  of  the  corn  whicli  comes  on  the  terminal  markets  originates  in  central 
Illinois,  northwestern  Iowa  and  eastern  Nebraska.  (Courtesy  of  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Chicago  is  outstandingly  the  largest  of  these  primary  markets,  normally 
receiving  over  100,000,000  bushels  annually,  or  as  much  as  any  other 
four  markets  put  together.  Northern  Iowa,  central  Illinois  and  eastern 
Nebraska  furnish  over  half  of  the  corn  which  is  received  by  the  primary 
corn  markets. 

From  Farm  to  Local  Elevator 

In  north-central  Iowa,  the  typical  method  of  handling  the  corn 
which  is-  eventually  sold  at  Chicago  is  described  in  the  following :  The 
farmer  hauls  his  corn,  either  shelled  or  on  the  ear,  to  the  local  elevator, 
^lost  progressive  farmers  who  have  any  large  quantity  of  corn  to  sell 
]irefer  to  shell  at  home,  because  they  can  haul  a  larger  load  of  shelled 
corn.  Moreover,  they  have  the  cobs  to  burn,  and  as  a  rule  the  elevator 
will  pay  them  a  cent  or  two  a  bushel  more  for  shelled  corn  than  for  ear 


100 


CORX  AND  C'OKX  GKOWIXG 


corn.  Tlu'  cost  of  haulinu'  corn  four  or  five  miles  is  about  four  cents 
a  bushel  when  man  lalior  is  25  cents  an  hour  and  horse  labor  18  cents 
an  hour. 

In  November,  December  and  early  January,  many  elevators  run  a 
moisture  test  on  the  corn  which  they  buy,  especially  in  soft  corn  years. 
While  the  local  elevators  do  not  usually  buy  corn  on  grade  from  the 
farmers,  it  is  necessary  at  the  start  of  each  season  for  them  to  deter- 
mine about  how  the  typical  corn  in  their  respective  communities  will 
tirade.     If  thev  find,  as  Iowa  elevators  found  in  December  of  1917,  that 


Hauling  corn. 

most  of  the  corn  is  22  to  26  per  cent  moisture,  they  know  that  it  will 
g-rade  either  as  Xo.  6  or  Sample  grade  on  the  Chicago  market.  T]i(\v 
therefore  ]^ay  the  farmers  the  Chicago  price  for  Sample  grade  corn  minus 
frei'jht  to  Chicauo  and  the  cost  and  risk  of  handling. 

Price  Differential  Between  Corn  on  Iowa  Farms  and  at  Chicago 

In  the  ordinary  year,  new  corn  in  northern  Iowa  in  December  con- 
tains less  than  19.3  per  cent  moisture,  which  i)ermits  it  to  grade  as  Xo.  4. 
As  a  rule,  therefore,  Iowa  elevators  during  the  early  winter  i)ay  tlic 
Chicago  price  for  X"o.  4  corn  minus  freight  and  handling  charges.  The 
freight  from  north-central  Iowa  to  Chicago  previous  to  June  25,  1918, 
was  about  seven  cents  a  bushel.  The  rate  was  then  raised  until  it 
reached  13  cents  a  bushel  during  the  latter  part  of  1920  and  during 
1921.  During  1922  and  1923,  the  rate  has  been  10.5  cents  a  bushel.  It 
cost  the  ordinarv  countrv  elevator  about  three  cents  a  bushel  to  handle 


MARKETING  COKX 


101 


corn  previous  to  193  7,  and  about  4.5  cents  a  l)ushel  witli  costs  as  they 
have  prevailed  durin<>'  1922  and  1928.  This  means  that  before  the  war 
the  north-central  Iowa  elevator  during  the  early  winter  usually  paid 
the  farmers  for  corn  the  Chicago  price  for  No.  4  corn  less  seven  cents 
for  freight  and  three  cents  for  handling.  In  other  words,  with  Chicago 
No.  4  corn  at  60  cents  a  bushel,  the  north-central  Iowa  elevator  paid 
.")()  cents. 

In  the  summer-time,  when  the  moisture  content  in  farm  corn 
dropped  to  less  than  15.5  per  cent  and  it  would,  therefore,  grade  as 
No.  2  instead  of  No.  4  on  the  Chicago  market,  the  north-central  Iowa 
elevator  would  pay  the  farmers  about  10  cents  below  the  Chicago  price 
for  No.  2  corn.  Dtiring  1922  and  1923,  the  standard  differential  be- 
t\veen  Chicago  corn  prices  and  prices  paid  by  north-central  Iowa  ele- 
vators has  been  10.5  cents  (the  freight  rate)  plits  4.5  cents  (the  handling 


Tyi^ical  country  elevator. 


charge),  or  a  total  of  15  cents.  At  times  some  other  market  may  bid 
more  for  Iowa  corn  than  Chicago,  and  in  stteh  case  Iowa  farmers  may 
get  for  their  corn  a  price  within  eight  cents  a  bushel  for  corn  of  the 
same  grade  at  Chicago.  This  is  rather  ttnusual,  however,  and  is  a  result 
as  a  rttle  of  corn  shortage  in  ]\[issouri,  Kansas  and  Texas,  which  causes  a 
strong  temporary  movement  of  Iowa  corn  sottthward. 

Types  of  Country  Elevators 

There  are  three  kinds  of  country  elevators — independent,  line  and 
farmers'  co-operative.  The  independent  elevator  is  tisitally  owned  by 
a  wealthy  man  in  a  small  town  who  has  an  extensive  accptaintance  with 
farmers.  Bankers,  lumber  dealers  and  feed  dealers  seem  especially  like- 
ly to  embark  on  this  line  of  business. 


102  COPxX  AXD  CORX-GROWIXd 

The  Federal  Trade  Commission  reports  that  of  over  9,000  eoiieerns 
handling-  grain  at  eonntry  stations  in  1918,  from  which  rejiorts  wev 
secured,  36  per  cent  Avere  commercial  line  elevators,  19.49  per  cent  were 
farmers'  co-operatives,  and  31.62  per  cent  were  commercial  independ- 
ents. The  local  mills  accounted  for  most  of  the  balance.  In  several 
of  the  grain  states,  where  there  is  a  keen  interest  in  co-operative  mar- 
keting, the  percentage  of  farmers'  elevators  is  much  higher  than  the 
general  average  of  the  country  as  reported  by  the  Federal  Trade  Commis- 
sion. For  instance,  Iowa's  percentage  of  co-operative  elevators  was 
estimated  at  32.6  in  1921.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  average  farm- 
ers' elevator  does  business  on  a  bigger  scale  than  either  of  the  other  tyi^^s. 
It  buys  annually  on  the  average  nearly  twice  the  volume  of  the  line 
elevator  and  about  one-half  more  than  the  average  independent.  Ordi- 
narily, an  elevator  should  handle  100,000  bushels  of  grain  annually  if 
it  is  to  do  business  on  an  economical  basis. 

Previous  to  1900.  many  of  the  line  elevators  profiteered  unmerci- 
fully, at  the  expense  of  their  farmer  patrons,  and  did  all  in  their  power 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  co-operative  elevators.  Since  1910,  the 
different  types  of  elevators  seem  to  have  been  doing  business  on  about 
the  same  margin,  with  the  tendency  in  favor  of  the  co-operative  elevators 
in  years  of  rising  prices,  and  oftentimes  in  favor  of  the  line  or  inde- 
pendent elevators  in  years  of  falling  prices. 

Two  Ways  in  Which  Country  Elevators  May  Sell  Grain  at  Chicago 

Country  elevators  may  ship  their  grain  to  Chicago  as  fast  as  they 
are  able  to  fill  the  cars,  or  they  may  ship  a  little  more  leisurely  and 
protect  themselves  against  a  decline  in  the  market  by  '' hedging ""  (sell- 
ing short  as  many  bushels  of  corn  for  future  delivery  as  they  have  bought 
from  the  farmers).  If  the  elevator  does  not  take  out  any  price  insur- 
ance in  the  form  of  "hedge"  sales,  it  will  make  a  speculative  profit  above 
expectations  in  case  the  Chicago  market  advances  before  the  car  gets  to 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  there  may  be  a  speculative  loss  if  the  market 
falls.  This  speculative  ri.sk  becomes  very  great  in  years  of  car  shortage, 
which  may  cause  the  la])se  of  several  AAceks  between  the  time  the  corn  is 
purchased  from  the  farmer  and  the  time  it  is  sold  at  Chicago. 

When  an  elevator  deals  only  in  cash  grain  without  any  "hedge" 
insurance,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  about  $2  a  car  (about  one-seventh  of  a 
cent  per  bushel)  for  brokerage  and  miscellaneous  charges.  If,  how- 
ever, an  elevator  takes  out  "hedge"  insurance  by  .selling  "future"  corn 
at  the  time  the  purchase  is  made  from  the  farmers,  it  is  necessary  to 
pay  about  one-fourth  of  a  cent  per  bushel  in  addition  for  the  insurance. 

The  method  of  hedging  is  illustrated  in  the  following:  An  elevator 
is  buying  corn  on  February  20,  which  it  expects  to  ship  sometime  in 
March.  May  future  corn,  which  is  the  nearest  future,  is  quoted  at  72 
cents  and  the  cash  No.  3  corn  is  66  cents.  The  elevator  knows  it  must 
buy  corn  from  farmers  at  15  cents  below  Chicago  price  for  same  grade, 


MAKKETIXG  CORN 


103 


and  it  therefore  i^ays  51  cents  for  1,115  bushels  of  corn,  ^vhicli  is  all 
that  is  offered  to  it  that  day.  The  same  day  it  wires  a  commission  com- 
pany at  Chicago  to  sell  1,000  bushels  of  May  corn  at  72  cents  (the  6-cent 
difference  between  the  February  cash  No.  3  corn  price  and  the  May 
future  is  in  part  caused  by  contract  future  corn  being  No.  2  and  in  part 
by  the  two  or  three  months'  storage  charges).  When  the  corn  is  finally 
received  in  Chicago,  on  March  10,  the  price  of  the  May  future  may  be  65 
cents  and  the  cash  No.  3  corn  59  cents.  In  that  case,  the  elevator  in 
buying  back  its  paper  contract  on  ]\rarch  10,  makes  a  profit  of  seven 
cents  a  bushel,  which  enables  it  to  meet  the  loss  on  the  cash  corn.  On 
the  other  hand,  an  advance  to  80  cents  for  May  future  and  74  cents  for 
No.  3  cash  will  result  in  a  loss  of  eight  cents  a  bushel  on  the  paper  corn, 
which  counteracts  the  gain  of  eight  cents  on  the  actual  corn.  In  either 
case,  the  net  result  is  that  the  elevator  gets  for  its  corn  a  price  about 
equivalent  to  what  it  paid  the  farmers  on  February  20. 

The  theory  of  "hedging"  is  beautiful,  and  the  practice  is  fairly 
good.  Unfortunately,  some  elevator  managers  succumb  to  the  tempta- 
tion to  buy  and  sell  paper  grain  above  what  is  needed  for  purely  "hedg- 
ing" purposes.  In  a  few  cases,  also,  the  cash  grain  and  future  grain 
markets  do  not  maintain  the  sympathetic  relation  toward  each  other 
which  is  neces.sary  if  "hedging"  is  to  be  perfect  price  insurance. 

The  four  futures  commonly  dealt  with  on  the  Chicago  market  are 
May,  July,  September  and  December.  The  smallest  unit  of  paper  grain 
customarily  handled  is  1,000  bushels.  Commission  firms  charge  one- 
fourth  of  a  cent  per  bushel,  or  $2.50  for  1,000  bushels,  for  the  sale  and 
purcha.se.  In  addition,  it  is  necessary  to  put  up  with  commission  firms 
10  cents  a  bushel,  or  $100  for  1,000  bushels,  to  serve  as  margin  to  pro- 
tect the  commission  company  in  case  the  corn  goes  down  before  the  deal 


Mcisture  tester  used   in  rleterminin.s;  corn   grades,  both   by   country   elevators 
and  at  primary  markets. 


104 


rOKX  AND  COKX-0 ROWING 


is  closed.  "Hedging"'  can  be  made  really  useful  by  elevator  managers, 
especially  -when  they  are  unable  to  ship  promptly,  and  the  tendency  of 
the  market  seems  downAvard.  In  the  case  of  line  elevators,  " hedginji' ' " 
is  usually  taken  care  of  from  a  central  office.  ]\Iany  co-operatives  do 
not  hedge  at  all,  partly  because  they  fear  their  managers  may  speculate 
on  the  side  and  partly  because  they  do  not  understand  the  advantages. 

The  Grain  Act,  which  was  passed  by  Congress  in  1922,  gives  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  power  to  designate  certain 
markets  as  contract  markets  where  futures  may  be  traded  in.  Regula- 
tions may  also  be  prescribed  with  the  idea  of  making  it  possible  for  the 
future  grain  prices  to  register  actual  changes  in  supply  and  demand 
conditions  rather  than  mere  speculative  raids  and  corners.  It  is  to  be 
assumed,  therefore,  that  the  Grain  Act  may  make  it  possible  to  use  the 
Chicago  market  for  "hedging"  purposes  with  greater  safety  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case. 

Handling  Cash  Grain  at  Chicago 

Grain  cars,  when  they  reach  Chicago,  are  switched  onto  grain  tracks, 
where  they  are  examined  by  state  grain  inspectors.  Samples  of  grain 
are  taken  from  each  ear,  and  these  samples  are  taken  to  a  grain  grading 
room,  where  the  percentage  of  moisture  is  ascertained  and  the  corn  is 
given  a  definite  grade  on  the  basis  of  the  Federal  Shelled  Corn  Stan- 
dards, as  set  forth  in  the  following : 

Table  XIV — Grade  Requirements  for  White,  Yellow  and  Mixed  Corn 


Maximum  Limits  of 

bo 

"S  ■~: 

a  g 

is 

Si  0 

"S  c 

Grade 

5-H 

2? 
5S 

11  = 

S2i 

.s  ^ 

Mois 
(per 

<li   ^   u 

o  a  a 

$  a 

x2 

No.    1    

55 

14.0 

2 

2 

.0 

No.    2    

53 

15.5 

3 

4 

.1 

No.   3   : 

51 

17.5 

4 

6 

.3 

No.    4    

49 
47 

19.5 
21.5 

5 
6 

8 
10 

^ 

No.    5    

1.0 

No.    6    

44 

23.0 

71 

15 

3.0 

1 

1 



1 

Sample  grade  shall  be  white  corn,  or  yellow  corn,  or  mixed  corn,  respec- 
tively, which  does  not  come  within  the  requirements  of  any  of  the  grades  from 
No.  1  to  No.  6,  inclusive,  or  which  has  any  commercially  objectionable  foreign 
odor,  or  is  heating,  hot,  infested  with  live  weevils  or  other  insects  injurious  to 
stored  grain,  or  is  otherwise  of  distinctly  low  quality. 

The  corn  in  Grades  Nos.  1  to  5,  inclusive,  shall  be  cool  and  sweet. 

The  corn  in  Grade  No.  6  shall  be  cool,  but  may  be  musty  or  sour. 


IMARKETIXG  CORN  105 

Definitions 

For  the  purposes  of  the  official  j>rain  standards  of  the  United  States 
for  shelled  corn  (maize)  : 

Corn— Corn  shall  be  shelled  corn  of  the  flint  or  dent  varieties. 

Basis  of  Determinations— Each  determination  of  color,  damage  and 
heat  damage  shall  be  upon  the  basis  of  the  grain  after  the  removal  of 
foreign  material  and  cracked  corn  as  provided  in  the  section  defining 
foreign  material  and  cracked  corn.  All  other  determinations  shall  be 
u])on  the  basis  of  the  grain,  including  such  foreign  material  and  cracked 
corn. 

Percentages— Percentages,  except  in  the  ease  of  moisture,  shall  l)e 
percentages  ascertained  by  weight. 

Percentage  of  Moisture— Percentage  of  moisture  in  corn  shall  be 
ascertained  by  the  moisture  tester  and  the  method  of  use  thereof  de- 
scribed in  Circular  No.  72  and  supplement  thereto,  issued  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  or  ascer- 
tained by  any  device  and  method  giving  equivalent  results. 

Test  AVeight  Per  Bushel— Test  weight  per  bushel  shall  be  the  weight 
per  Winchester  bushel  as  determined  by  the  testing  apparatus  and  the 
method  of  use  thereof  described  in  Bulletin  No.  472,  dated  October  30. 
1916.  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  or  as  deter- 
mined by  any  device  and  method  giving  equivalent  results. 

Foreign  Material  and  Cracked  Corn— Foreign  material  and  cracked 
corn  shall  be  kernels  and  pieces  of  kernels  of  corn,  and  all  matter  other 
than  corn,  which  will  pass  through  a  metal  sieve  perforated  with  round 
holes  twelve  sixty-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  all  matter  other 
than  corn  remaining  on  such  sieve  after  screening. 

Heat-Damaged  Kernels— Heat-damaged  kernels  shall  be  kernels  and 
l)ieces  of  kernels  of  corn  which  have  been  distinctly  discolored  by  ex- 
ternal heat  or  as  a  result  of  heating  caused  by  fermentation. 

The  market  corn  is  also  divided  into  classes  on  the  basis  of  color. 

as  follows : 

AVhite  Corn— This  class  shall  consist  of  corn  of  which  at  least  9S 
per  cent  by  weight  of  the  kernels  are  white.  A  slight  tinge  of  light  straw 
color  or  of  pink  on  kernels  of  corn  otherwise  white  shall  not  affect  their 
classification  as  white  corn. 

Yellow  Corn— This  class  shall  consist  of  corn  of  which  at  least  95 
]ier  cent  by  weight  of  the  kernels  are  yellow.  A  slight  tinge  of  red  on 
kernels  of  corn  otherwise  yellow  shall  not  affect  their  classification  as 
yellow  corn. 

Mixed  Corn— This  class  shall  consist  of  corn  of  various  colors  not 
coming  Avithin  the  limits  for  color  as  provided  in  the  definitions  of  white 
corn  and  yellow  corn.  White-capped  yellow  kernels  shall  be  classified 
as  mixed  corn. 


106  CORN  AND  ('()KN-GR()^Y1XG 

In  the  ordinary  crop  year,  the  leading'  primary  markets  receive 
about  equal  amounts  of  No.  2,  No.  3  and  No.  4  grades  of  corn,  with  much 
more  No.  3  and  No.  4  corn  coming-  in  during  December  and  January. 
In  a  soft  corn  year  like  1917,  25  to  40  per  cent  of  the  corn  may  be  .soft 
corn  and  sell  5  to  15  cents  a  bushel  below  No.  2.  In  unusually  .sound 
corn  years  like  1920,  half  of  the  corn  may  grade  as  No.  2  or  better. 


CHAPTER  21 

CORN  PRICES 

^<)RX  prices  are   chiefly  dependent  on  the  size  of  the  crop   in  the 
I'nited  States.     Statistical  research  indicates  that  corn  prices  before 
the  war,  on  farms  of  the  United  States,  on  December  1,  varied  up  and 
down  according  to  size  of  the  crop,  about  as  follows : 

Corn  Crop  Price,  Dec.  1,  on  farms 

20  per  cent  below  normal 34  per  cent  above  normal 

l.T  per  cent  below  normal 21  per  cent  above  normal 

10  per  cent  below  normal 15  per  cent  above  normal 

10  per  cent  above  normal S  per  cent  below  normal 

The  normal  corn  crop  for  the  United  States  from  1923  to  1928  seems 
to  be  about  2,850,000.000  bushels.  Because  of  world-wide  price  dis- 
turbances, it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  say  just  what  will  be  the  normal 
corn  price  on  farms  of  the  United  States  on  December  1,  from  1923  to 
1928.  If  we  assume  80  cents  as  the  normal  corn  price,  a  crop  of  3,135.- 
000.000  bushels  (10  per  cent  above  normal)  would  mean,  according  1o 
the  table,  a  price  of  8  per  cent  below  normal,  or  73.6  cents,  whereas,  a 
crop  of  2,565,000,000  (10  per  cent  below  normal)  would  indicate  a  price 
of  15  per  cent  above  normal,  or  92  cents. 

Corn  Prices  Also  Influenced  by  Size  of  Crop  Two  Years  Previous 

A  large  corn  crop  two  years  previous  tends  to  mean  higher  corn 
prices  this  year.  This  is  probably  a  result  of  a  larger  hog  population 
wliich  followed  the  large  corn  crop  and  which  is  still  existing  two  years 
following  the  large  corn  crop.  This  influence  is  very  small  as  compared 
to  the  influence  of  the  size  of  the  corn  crop  the  same  year.  The  tend- 
ency is  expressed  in  the  following : 

Corn  Crop,  two  years 

previous  Price,  Dec.  1,  on  farms 

2.5  per  cent  below  normal 5  per  cent  below  normal 

10  per  cent  below  normal 2  per  cent  below  normal 

10  per  cent  above  normal 2  per  cent  above  normal 

15  per  cent  above  normal 3  per  cent  above  normal 

Corn  Prices  Influenced  by  Wheat  Prices 

Both  corn  flour  and  corn  meal  are  used  occasionally  to  some  extent 
as  Avheat  flour  substitutes,  and  there  is  therefore  a  little  sympathy  be- 
tween wheat  and  corn  prices.  Before  the  war.  this  relationship  seems 
to  have  been  about  as  follows: 


108  COKX  AND  CORN-GROWING 

Wheat   Price  Corn   Price 

Dec.  1,  on  farms  Dec.  1,  on  farms 

30  per  cent  below  normal 6  per  cent  below  normal 

20  per  cent  below  normal 4  per  cent  below  normal 

10  per  cent  below  normal 2  per  cent  below  normal 

10  per  cent  above  normal 2  per  cent  above  normal 

20  per  cent  above  normal 4  per  cent  above  normal 

30  per  cent  above  normal 6  per  cent  above  normal 

During  the  twenty  years  following  the  Civil  war,  corn  sold  on  the 
average  for  only  about  half  as  much  per  bushel  as  wheat,  but  since  1890 
corn  has  averaged  65  to  70  per  cent  as  much  as  wheat,  and  in  years  of 
.short  corn  crops  and  fairly  good  wheat  crops  corn  has  sold  within  a  few 
cents  a  bushel  of  wheat.  Because  of  the  fact  that  wheat  is  richer  in 
gluten  than  corn,  and  therefore  better  adapted  to  bread  making;  be- 
cause a  bushel  of  wheat  weighs  60  pounds,  whereas  a  bushel  of  corn 
weighs  only  56  pounds,  and  because  corn  is  higher  in  moisture  than 
wheat,  it  is  doubtful  if  corn  Avill  ever  sell  for  any  length  of  time  for 
more  than  85  per  cent  as  much  per  bushel  as  wheat.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  corn  will  gradually  advance  from  its  present  ratio  of  around 
70  per  cent  to  80  per  cent  for  the  reason  that  the  good  corn  lands  of 
the  world  are  much  more  limited  than  the  wheat  lands,  and  corn  is  used 
in  making  many  more  different  kinds  of  food  and  industrial  products 
than  Avheat.  In  fact,  it  is  possible  though  hardly  probable  that  corn 
will  eventually  sell  for  practically  the  same  price  per  bushel  as  wheat. 

For  the  immediate  future  it  is  to  be  expected  in  years  when  both  the 
wheat  and  corn  crops  are  normal,  that  corn  will  sell  for  about  70  per 
cent  as  much  per  bushel  as  wheat.  If  corn  sells  for  a  period  of  years 
above  this  ratio,  there  will  be  a  teudencv  in  lar'.ve  parts  of  ^Missouri. 
Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio  to  ]uit  much  land  which  is  now  in  winter 
wheat   into  corn. 

Corn  Price  in  Early  Winter  Influenced  by  Hog  Packing  the 
Preceding  Summer 

There  is  a  tendency  for  the  numlier  of  hogs  packed  the  ])recediug 
summer  to  influence  corn  prices  in  the  early  winter,  about  as  follows  : 

Number  of  Hoss  packed  at  western     Corn    Price    during   early    winter 

points  preceding  summer.  immediately  following. 

8  per  cent  decrease  below  normal. ...4  per  cent  decrease  below  normal 
4  per  cent  decrease  below  normal. ...2  per  cent  decrease  below  normal 
4  per  cent  increase  above  normal... .2  per  cent  increase  above  normal 
8  per  cent  increase   above  normal....4  per  cent  increase   above  normal 

Evidently,  a  large  number  of  liogs  fed  out  during  the  summer  im- 
mediately preceding  the  new  corn  crop  helps  in  some  measure  to  create 
a  situation  making  for  slightly  higher  priced  corn. 

The  average  weight  of  hogs  during  the  summer  also  indicates  a 
little  something  concerning  the  oncoming  corn  price  situation.  The  re- 
hilion  seems  to  be  about  as  follows: 


CORN  PRICES  109 

Weight  of  Hogs  at  western  pack-     Corn    Prices   during   early   winter 

ing  points  preceding  summer.  immediately  following. 

6  per  cent  increase  above  normal... .8  per  cent  decrease  below  normal 
3  per  cent  increase  above  normal.. ..4  per  cent  decrease  below  normal 
3  per  cent  decrease  below  normal. ...4  per  cent  increase  above  normal 
G  per  cent  decrease  below  normal....S  per  cent  increase  above  normal 

rt  seems  that  ho<i's  are  fed  out  lo  a  heavier  wei^-ht  than  usual  durino: 
the  summer  ^vhen  corn  is  more  abundant  and  cheaper  than  usual.  This 
indicates  a  temporary  weakness  in  the  corn  situation  which  is  likely 
to  carry  over  to  some  extent  into  the  new  crop  season.  Fewer  ho<>s 
than  usual,  fed  to  heavier  weights  than  usual  during-  the  summer  season 
immediately  ])recedin,G:  the  new  corn  crop,  indicate  that  the  hog  Dack- 
ground  to  corn  prices  is  unfavorable.  On  the  other  hand,  large  numbers 
of  ho?.s  fed  out  to  a  light  weight  during  the  summer  months  indicate 
that  the  hog  background  to  corn  prices  is  favorable.  Some  people  think 
that  large  numbers  of  hogs  fed  to  heavy  weights  would  be  more  favor- 
able to  high  corn  prices  than  large  numbers  fed  to  light  weights.  Actu- 
ally, it  does  not  work  out  this  way,  for  the  reason  that  farmers  will  not 
feed  hogs  to  heavy  weights  except  when  there  is  an  abundance  of  cheap 
corn,  a  situation  which  usually  continues  to  make  somewhat  for  cheaper 
corn  prices  during  the  new  crop  season. 

Corn  Prices  and  Hog  Prices 

Corn  and  hog  ratios  are  discussed  in  tlie  following  chapter  (22). 
There  is  not  the  close  immediate  connection  betAveen  corn  prices  and 
hog  prices  that  many  people  think.  Statistical  research  indicates  that 
l)efore  the  war  corn  prices  usually  led  the  way  and  hog  prices  followed 
l)ehind.  As  a  rule,  scarce,  high-priced  corn  was  followed  several  months 
later  by  higher-priced  hogs,  the  full  effect  being  felt  on  the  hogs  about 
eight  or  nine  months  later,  and  continuing  for  about  twenty  months  after 
the  short  corn  crop  Avas  harvested. 

Hog  prices  are  practically  valueless  in  predicting  the  future  course 
of  corn  prices,  although  corn  prices  may  be  of  very  real  value  in  pre- 
dicting the  future  course  of  hog  prices. 

Weather  and  Corn  Prices 

Since  the  size  of  the  crop  (discussed  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this 
chapter)  has  far  more  to  do  with  corn  prices  than  all  the  other  factors 
put  together,  it  is  especially  important  to  study  the  weather  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  crop.  This  is  gone  into  in  great  detail  in  Chap- 
ter 3.  Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  the  all-important  weather  from  the 
standpoint  of  corn  prices  is  the  rainfall  and  temperature  from  July  1 
to  August  20.  During  this  period,  it  requires  an  average  of  about  one 
inch  of  rainfall  every  ten  days  to  hoVl  new  crop  futures  (December  and 
]May)  corn  prices  steady.  More  than  one  inch  of  rainfall  in  ten  davs 
tends  to  lower  corn  prices,  1.4  inches  or  more  tending  to  cause  a  drop 
of  two  or  three  cents  a  bushel.     Less  than  half  an  inch  of  rainfall  in 


no  CORN  AND  ('0RX-(!K{)WIXC1 

tell  (la\-s  tends  to  cause  an  advanei^  of  1hree  or  four  cents  a  bushel.  I  r 
there  has  been  an  average  of  less  than  a  tenth  of  an  inch  of  rain  during 
the  ten-day  period,  and  if  the  mean  temperature  has  averaged  above  80 
degrees,  the  corn  price  may  run  up  six  to  eight  cents  a  bushel.  To  de- 
termine the  average  rainfall,  it  is  necessary  to  have  reports  from  at 
least  twenty  representative  stations  in  each  of  such  states  as  Iowa,  Illi- 
nois. Indiana,  Ohio,  IMissouri,  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  The  daily  corn 
and  wheat  region  bulletin,  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  Chicago 
AVeather  Bureau,  gives  such  information. 

Prices  as  Influenced  by  Shrinkage  and  Time  of  Year 

Illinois  and  Io^^•a  ex})eriments  indicate  that  on  the  average,  corn 
picked  early  in  November  will  shrink  about  3  per  cent  during  November. 
2  per  cent  during  December,  1  per  cent  in  January,  1  per  cent  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1  per  cent  in  ■March,  3  per  cent  in  April,  3  per  cent  in  May,  2 
per  cent  in  June,  and  1  per  cent  in  July,  normalh'  making  a  total  of 
about  17  per  cent  shrinkage  from  cribbing  time  in  November  until  the 
middle  of  the  following  summer.  Of  course,  there  is  considerable  vari- 
ation in  the  years.  If  the  fall  is  dry  and  the  corn  is  unusually  well 
matured,  the  shrinkage  may  amount  to  only  9  or  10  per  cent,  whereas 
in  years  when  the  fall  is  wet  or  the  corn  is  poorly  matured,  it  may  run 
as  high  as  25  per  cent.  The  monthly  figures  represent  normal  condi- 
tions. In  some  years,  however,  the  really  heavy  shrinkage  will  start 
in  late  Alarch,  in  other  years  in  April,  and  occasionally  not  until  June. 
Ordinarily,  though,  late  April  and  ]\Iay  is  the  time  of  the  heaviest  shrink- 
age in  corn,  much  depending,  however,  on  the  temperature  and  the 
humidity. 

On  the  basis  of  shrinkage  alone,  it  would  take,  to  equal  a  ])rice  of 
50  cents  a  bushel  for  corn  in  November,  55  cents  in  April  and  US  cents 
in  July.  When  interest  is  added  at  6  per  cent,  and  allowance  is  made 
for  the  overhead  investment  in  the  crib,  and  for  a  small  amount  of  rat- 
tage,  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  ordinary  year,  it  will  take,  to  equal  a 
price  of  50  cents  a  bushel  for  corn  in  November,  about  52  cents  in  De- 
cember, 53  cents  in  January,  54  cents  in  February,  55  cents  in  March, 
57  cents  in  April,  59  cents  in  May,  60  cents  in  June,  62  cents  in  July. 
and  62.5  cents  in  August.  The  actual  pre-war  normal  price  for  corn 
on  Iowa  farms  was  49  cents  a  bushel  in  late  November  and  December. 
50  cents  in  January,  51  cents  in  February,  53  cents  in  March,  56  cents 
in  April,  59  cents  in  May,  61  cents  in  June,  63  cents  in  July,  63  cents  iir 
August,  and  61  cents  in  September.  This  would  indicate  that  before 
the  war,  it  was  normally  a  good  plan  to  sell  corn  in  late  November,  if 
possible,  rather  than  to  sell  in  December,  January,  February  or  March. 
Rather  than  to  sell  in  these  months,  it  seemed  usually  to  be  a  good  ])l;i:i 
to  hold  for  a  June,  July  or  August  market. 

Corn  Prices  as  Affected  by  the  General  Price  Level 

Whenever  the  general  price  level  rises  as  a  result  of  the  abundant 
cu.rrency  which  follows  upon  an  increased  gold  supply,  improved  bank- 


CORN  PRICES  111 

in<>'  methods,  or  war,  it  is  inevitable  that  corn  prices  also  should  rise. 
From  1896  to  1913,  the  general  tendency  of  corn  prices  was  upward, 
tecause  prices  of  all  kinds  were  going  up  as  a  result  of  the  sudden  in- 
crease in  gold  output  accompanied  by  improved  banking  methods.  From 
1915  to  1920,  the  war  demand,  accompanied  by  currency  inflation,  sent 
prices  of  all  kinds  up.  and  corn  moved  in  sympathy. 

From  1896  to  1913,  food  prices  of  most  kinds  increased  somewhat 
more  rapidly  than  prices  generally,  because  the  great  over-production 
of  food  resulting  from  the  opening  of  the  IMississippi  valley  was  finally 
absorbed.  Corn  prices  advanced  more  rapidly  than  most  other  food 
prices,  because  the  corn  land  of  the  world  was  qnite  fnlly  exploited  be- 
fore the  wheat,  oat  and  rye  land. 

Tf  we  express  the  relation  between  farm  corn  prices  and  the  general 
United  States  price  level  as  100,  in  the  decade  1906-1915,  then  the  rela- 
tion during  the  twenty  years  extending  from  1866  to  1885  was  79, 
whereas  the  relationship  during  the  decade  of  1886-1895  was  88  and 
during  the  decade  of  1896-1905  the  relationship  w^as  87. 

Using  the  same  method,  we  find  the  corn  crops  of  1920,  1921  and 
1922  selling  for  an  average  of  only  61,  as  compared  with  100  in  1906- 
1915.  This  very  low  relationship  was  caused  partly  by  the  inability 
of  Europe  to  pay  normal  prices  for  our  surplus  corn  and  pork  products 
and  partly  by  the  ability  of  organized  labor  and  organized  business  to 
hold  up  manufactured  products  and  freight  rates  to  a  high  level.  Corn 
prices  will  doubtless  reach  again  their  1906-1915  ratio  to  the  general 
price  level  by  the  decade  of  1930-1940.  The  decade  of  1920-1930  is  one 
of  readjustment  and  uncertainty. 

Corn  Prices  and  Wages  of  City  Labor 

From  1811  to  1860,  a  l)ush("l  of  corn  on  the  Chicago  market  sold  for 
the  value  of  four  hours  of  city  labor.  From  1 873  to  1902,  a  bushel  sold 
for  the  value  of  2.3  hours.  From  1903  to  1912,  a  bushel  sold  for  the 
value  of  2.4  hours  of  labor.  Corn  in  1921  and  1922  sold  on  the  basis  of 
1.2  hours  of  labor  per  bushel. 

During  the  four  years  before  the  war  (1911-1914),  it  required  about 
1,170  bushels  of  Chicago  corn  to  equal  the  yearly  wages  of  the  railroad 
man.  In  1921  and  1922,  it  required  2,700  bushels  to  equal  the  yearly 
wages  of  the  railroad  man. 

Theoretically,  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  in  the  long  run  the  volume 
of  city  labor  will  increase  more  rapidly  than  the  output  of  corn,  and 
that  therefore  the  tendency  will  be  for  the  yearly  wages  of  city  labor 
to  buy  fewer  and  fewer  bushels  of  corn.  Labor-saving  inventions  both 
on  the  farm  and  in  the  cities  tend  to  postpone  this  eventual  outcome. 
Temporarily  also,  labor  organizations  can  hold  wages  above  the  ratio 
Avith  corn  prices  justified  by  the  fundamental  economic  situation.  This 
results  oftentimes,  however,  in  larger  numbers  of  corn  farmers  looking 
for  work  in  the  cities.     It  is  to  be  expected,  therefore,  that  the  situation 


112 


COKN  AND  COKX-GROWING 


of  l!)21-l!l'22  will  not  continuo  iiidcfinitcly.  l)nt  th;it  corn  prices  -will 
after  a  time  come  to  have  as  favorable  a  ratio  with  the  waues  of  labor 
as  ill  1911-1914. 

Geography  of  Corn  Prices 
Before  the  war,  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag-riculture  made 
a  lieographical  study  of  corn  prices  for  the  five-year  period,  1910-1914. 
The  oiitstandino-  feature  of  this  inA-estipration  was  that  the  center  of 


Geography  of  corn   prices,   1910-1914. 


Geography  of  corn  prices,  1920-1922.     Note  that  the  cheap  corn  section  is  still 
about  the  same  as  before  the  war. 


(^ORN  PRICES  113 

c'lieap  corn  was  in  northwestern  Iowa,  northeastern  Nebraska,  south- 
eastern South  Dakota  and  southwestern  ^Minnesota.  When  No.  2  corn 
was  61  cents  a  bushel  on  the  Chicago  market  during  December,  it  was 
customary  for  corn  on  farms  in  northwestern  Iowa  to  sell  about  14 
cents  a  bushel  cheaper,  or  around  47  cents  a  bushel.  Eastward  and 
southeastward  of  the  cheap  corn  section  in  northwestern  Iowa,  corn 
prices  before  the  war  ordinarily  tended  upward  at  the  rate  of  about 
three  cents  every  hundred  miles. 

A  study  based  on  the  three-year  period,  1920-1922.  indicates  that 
northwestern  Iowa,  northeastern  Nebraska,  southeastern  South  Dakota 
and  southwestern  ^Minnesota  is  still  the  cheap  corn  section.  The  really 
great  difference  between  the  two  maps  is  caused  by  the  increase  in 
freight  rates.  During  1920  and  1921,  the  cost  of  shipping  a  bushel  of 
corn  from  northwestern  Iowa  to  Chicago  was  seven  or  eight  cents  more 
than  before  the  war,  and  in  1922,  after  the  reduction  was  made,  the  cost 
was  still  about  four  cents  a  bushel  more  than  before  the  war. 

From  the  standpoint  of  producing  .surplus  corn  for  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket, the  only  reg;ion  which  compares  with  northwestern  Iowa  is  central 
Illinois.  The  corn  price  in  this  section  would  be  just  as  low  as  in  north- 
western Iowa  except  for  the  fact  that  it  is  two  hundred  miles  closer  to 
Chicago.  Before  the  war,  this  gave  it  an  advantage  of  five  cents  a 
bushel.  Since  the  war,  as  a  result  of  the  increase  in  freight  rates,  the 
advantage  has  amounted  to  at  least  seven  or  eight  cents  a  bushel. 

In  southern  oMissouri  and  southern  Illinois,  with  the  exception  of 
a  very  small  area  along  the  river  in  extreme  southeastern  ^Missouri,  there 
is  no  surplus  corn  whatever  to  ship  to  market.  Home-grown  live  stock 
furnishes  the  market,  and  the  corn  price  customarily  is  almost  as  high 
as  the  Chicago  price.  In  fact,  there  are  sections  of  the  Ozarks  Avhere 
corn  almost  invariably  sells  higher  than  at  Chicago.  There  are  parts 
even  of  northern  ^Missouri  where  corn  is  often  shipped  in.  During 
1921  and  1922,  for  instance,  there  were  sections  of  northern  Missouri 
with  the  corn  price  averaging  around  65  cents  at  a  time  when  only  200 
miles  away,  in  central  Iowa,  the  price  was  42  cents.  This  situation 
encouraged  a  considerable  movement  of  Iowa  corn  southwai-d  instead  of 
to  Chicago. 

In  studying  the  two  maps,  keep  in  mind  that  the  prices  are  based 
on  December  1  farm  values.  During  the  summer-time,  when  there  is 
less  moisture  in  the  corn,  and  when  a  corn  shortage  develops  in  many 
localities,  farm  corn  prices  much  more  nearly  approach  the  Chicago  corn 
prices. 

For  the  ten  years,  191.3-1922,  average  December  1  corn  prices  for 
representative  states  in  different  sections  of  the  country  were :  South 
Dakota,  70  cents;  Iowa,  73  cents;  Illinois,  78  cents;  Ohio,  83  cents; 
Pennsylvania,  99  cents:  New  York,  $1.16;  ^Massachusetts,  $1.22;  Georgia, 
•+1.08;  Texas,  $1;  Colorado,  85  cents;  Idaho.  $1.04,  and  California,  $1.24. 


114  CORN  AND  (OKX-CIROAVIXG 

The  corn  price  rises  rajiidly  in  every  direction  from  the  center  of  cheap- 
est corn,  where  Iowa,  Nebraska.  South  Dakota  and  ^Minnesota  come 
tog-ether. 

Corn  Value 

The  ultimate  value  of  corn  is  as  a  source  of  fuel  or  power.  A  bushel 
of  ear  corn  contains  about  the  same  number  of  B.  T.  units  as  50  to  60 
pounds  of  ordinary  soft  coal.  When  soft  coal  is  above  $15  a  ton  and 
corn  is  less  than  30  cents  a  bushel,  corn  may  derive  a  part  of  its  value 
from  its  heating  content.  This  situation  is  reached  only  in  communi- 
ties remote  from  coal  mines  and  terminal  markets  in  years  when  the 
general  economic  situation  is  demoralized  and  the  corn  crop  is  very 
large. 

When  crude  oil  becomes  so  scarce  that  crude  oil  sells  wholesale  alove 
50  cents  a  gallon,  it  is  possible  that  alcohol  made  from  corn  at  75  cents  a 
bushel  can  compete  with  the  gasoline  as  a  source  of  power  for  automo- 
biles and  trucks. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  corn  derives  its  value  largely  from  its 
ability  to  furnish  fat-forming  material  to  hogs  more  cheaply  than  any 
other  grain.  By  means  of  the  corn-hog  combination,  it  is  possible  to 
produce  palatable  meat  with  a  less  expenditure  of  land  and  human 
labor  than  in  any  other  way.  Corn  is  the  most  efficient  plant  of  the 
temperate  zones  in  fixing  the  energy  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  the  hog  is 
the  most  efficient  meat  animal  for  converting  that  sun  energy  of  corn 
into  a  palatable  form  for  human  consumption.  Corn  also  derives  a 
part  of  its  value  from  its  ability  to  furnish  the  22,000,000  farm  work 
horses  and  mules  of  the  United  States  the  cheapest  energy  which  can  be 
obtained  in  any  grain. 

Heretofore,  corn  has  derived  only  a  small  part  of  its  value  from 
its  use  in  factories  and  mills.  Its  use  in  this  way  is  steadily  growing, 
however,  and  eventuall.y  the  corn  food  products  as  manufactured  wiil 
have  as  much  to  do  with  corn  values  as  the  ham,  bacon  and  lard  Avhich 
are  made  by  the  hog  out  of  corn.  Commercial  corn  ])roducts  are  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  37. 


CHAPTER 


CORN-HOG  RATIOS 


/^OKX  and  hogs  influence  each  other  profoundly.  One  year  with  an- 
other, hogs  consume  about  40  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United 
States,  or  as  much  as  all  of  the  other  farm  animals  put  together.  Hogs 
are  even  more  important  as  a  market  for  corn  than  the  foregoing  indi- 
cates, for  the  reason  that  the  horse,  mule  and  dairy  cow  demand  for 
corn  is  almost  constant,  whereas  the  hog  consumption  of  corn  often 
varies  by  as  much  as  10  per  cent  from  one  3'ear  to  the  next.  Moreover, 
tlie  20  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  which  the  farmers  of  the  United  States 
customarily  feed  to  their  horses  and  mules  is  used  to  keep  the  farm  man- 
MAP  NO.  VII 


Note  that  the  hog  dots  are  thickest  where  corn  dots  are  thickest,  the  most 
outstanding  exception  heing  east-central  Illinois.  (Courtesy  of  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

ufaeturing  plant  running  and  is  not  a  direct  source  of  income.  The 
corn  which  is  sold  in  the  form  of  hogs  bulks  far  larger  than  the  corn 
which  is  used  in  any  other  way. 

Close  Relationship 

-Maps  Xos:.  VII  and  VIll  illustrate  the  exceedingly  clo^e  relationship 
between  corn  and  hogs  in  the  United  States.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
where  the  corn  dots  are  thickest,  so  also  are  the  hog  dots.     The  outstand- 


116 


CORN  AND  CORN-GKOAVING 


ing-  exception  i^s  in  central  Illinois,  Avhere  with  Chica<>'0  only  100  miles 
away,  the  comparative  freight  rates  on  corn  and  hogs  are  snch  as  to 
make  it  more  profitable  on  many  of  the  rented  farms  to  ship  corn  rather 
than  hog-s  to  Chicago.  In  the  mountain  and  Pacific  coast  states,  the 
hog  dots  are  thicker  than  the  corn  dots,  the  hogs  being  fattened  on  barley 
and  milo.  These  western  hogs  are  barely  sufficient  to  supply  the  home 
demand,  and  do  not  have  commercial  significance  in  the  same  way  as 
the  hogs  of  the  Corn  Belt. 

Chicago  Values  as  a  Basis  for  Ratios 

With  corn  and  hogs  so  dependent  on  each  other,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  there  should  be  a  close  relationship  between  corn  and  hog  prices. 
This  relationship  is  known  as  the  corn-hog  ratio.  As  the  average  of  the 
past  fifty  years,  it  has  required  on  the  Chicago  market  11.5  bushels  of 
Xo.  2  corn  to  equal  in  value  100  pounds  of  heavy  hogs.  In  other  words, 
with  No.  2  corn  at  50  cents  a  bushel  at  Chicago,  the  tendenc^y  has  been 

MAP  NO.  VIII 


Compare  with  I\Tan  VII  and  note  the  tendencv  tci  corn  and  hogs  to  go  together 
in  the  United  States.     (Courtesy  of  I'.  S.  Dent,  of  Agriculture.) 


for  heavy  hogs  to  sell  for  11..")  times  as  much,  o:-  lor  $5.75  a  hundred- 
weight. Decade  after  decade,  the  ratio  has  averaged  around  11  or  12 
bushels  on  the  Chicago  market.  Sometimes  corn  is  so  cheap  and  hogs 
are  so  high  that  the  ratio  may  be  15  or  16  bushels  for  a  year  or  so,  but 
in  such  a  ca.se  the  result  is  the  breeding  of  .so  many  sows  that  there  is 
an  over-production  of  hogs  and  a  shortage  of  corn  (unless  the  weather 
is  unusually  favorable),  Avith  the  result  that  hogs  become  cheap  and  corn 
liiuh  and  tlio  ratio  narrows  suddenlv  to  10  bushels  or  even  less.     Usuallv. 


CORN-HOG  RATIOS 


117 


hogs  sell  for  about  twenty  months  below  their  long-time  ratio  with  corn 
and  then  for  about  twenty  months  above  it.  Sometimes  cholera,  un- 
usual business  conditions,  war,  or  exceptional  weather  modifies  the 
swing  of  hog  prices  above  and  below  their  normal  ratio,  but  even  so 
the  swings  are  only  rarely  shorter  than  twelve  months  or  longer  than 
thirty  months.  The  chart  illustrates  the  rhythmical  nature  of  the  corn- 
hog  relationship.  The  zero  line  in  this  chart  is  the  11.5-bushel  ratio  cor- 
rected for  the  season  of  year  (in  December  the  ratio  is  about  11  bushels, 
whereas  in  the  early  spring  it  averages  12.4  under  a  situation  where  the 
average  for  the  entire  year  is  11.5  bushels). 

Ratio  Based  on  Farm  Values 

If  Corn  Belt  farm  values  are  taken  for  both  corn  and  hogs,  instead 
of  Chicago  values,  the  normal  ratio  is  13  bushels  of  farm  corn  to  equal 
100  pounds  of  farm  hog,  instead  of  11.5  bushels.     This  difference  is 

WOg    l<}0<i    iqiQ     nil     |qi2    (<)|3    1114-    H 15    IS  lb    19/1    I'^IS    1919    1920   l<72l     1^22    1123 


1 

1 

i 

k 

£00 

i 

ij 

1 

1    42 

L 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

iJ 

1 

1 

1 

L 

k 

II 

ii 

_■ 

I 

I 

F 

?  L0S5, 

RrC.t^W 

m 

1 

t 

■ 

1 

i 

Pi 

2 

J         - 

..       . 

V 

If 

1 

1 

1 

1 

^1 

5 

._o         .. 

I 

P 

1 

A 

.. 

1 

1 

1 

5 

V 

1 

1 

_.e 

1? 

.... 

} 

■J 

Chart  illustrating  when  hog  prices  have  been  above  and  below   their  normal 
ratio  with  corn  prices  weighted  seasonally. 


caused  partly  by  the  fact  that  farm  corn  is  on  the  ear  instead  of  shelled, 
and  averages  No.  3  grade  instead  of  No.  2.  3Ioreover,  the  freight  rate 
on  corn  is  a  much  higher  percentage  of  its  value  than  is  the  case  with 
hogs,  and  this  automatically  tends  to  make  the  ratio  higher  on  the  farm 
than  at  Chicago.  The  Corn  Belt  farm  ratio  between  corn  and  hogs  has 
a  normal  seasonal  range  from  about  11  bushels  during  the  late  summer 
to  l-t  bushels  in  the  early  spring.  In  central  Illinois,  100  miles  south 
of  Chicago,  the  corn-hog  ratio,  as  a  result  of  the  freight  rate  situation, 
averages  about  12.5  bushels  over  the  same  series  of  years  that  the  ratio 
in  northwestern  Iowa  is  13.5  bushels.     The  difference  of  one  bushel  in 


118  CORN  A  XT)  CORX-G  ROWING 

ratios  explains  Avhv  it  is  that  northwestern  Iowa  farmers  feed  on  the 
averag'e  45  per  cent  of  their  corn  to  hogs,  whereas  central  Illinois  farmers 
feed  only  25  to  30  per  cent.  Over  any  period  of  time,  the  corn-hog  ratio 
is  a  very  delicate  governor  of  the  percentage  of  the  corn  crop  which 
will  be  fed  to  hogs. 

In  the  long  run,  the  price  which  the  consumers  of  the  United  States, 
England  and  Germany  are  willing  to  pay  for  pork  and  lard  has  more  to 
do  with  determining  corn  prices  than  any  other  one  thing.  Corn  farm- 
ers, even  those  who  keep  no  hogs,  should  watch  the  hog  market.  If  hogs 
are  plentiful  and  low  priced,  it  may  mean  a  temporary  scarcity  of  corn 
and  high  corn  prices,  but  it  also  means  that  fewer  sows  will  be  bred  for 
next  year  and  that  eventually  a  hog  shortage  will  result,  which  means 
a  corn  surplus,  unless  unfavorable  weather  has  caused  a  short  corn  crop 
at  the  same  time  as  the  short  hog  crop.  Corn  men  should  also  be  vitally 
interested  in  pork  exports,  for  it  is  a  matter  of  history  that  after  several 
years  of  unusually  heavy  pork  exports  the  tendency  is  toward  an  increase 
in  corn  prices.  AVe  normally  export  twice  as  much  corn  in  the  form  of 
pork  as  in  the  form  of  grain.  The  corn-hog  relationships  are  not  a.s 
direct  and  immediate  as  many  people  think,  but  over  any  period  of  time 
it  is  astonishing  how  corn  prices  depend  on  hog  prices,  and  vice  versa. 


CHAPTER  23 

COST  OF  CORN  PRODUCTION 

TX  THE  best  corn  sections  of  Iowa  and  central  Illinois,  where  gany 
plows  are  nsed  and  five-horse  teams,  an  acre  of  corn  requires  about 
16  hours  of  man  labor  and  42  hours  of  horse  labor.  This  divides  up 
roughly  as  follows :  Plowing,  tAvo  hours  of  man  labor  and  ten  hours 
of  horse  labor ;  disking-and  harroAving,  two  hours  of  man  labor  and  eight 
hours  of  horse  labor;  planting,  three-fourths  of  an  hour  of  man  labor 
and  one  and  one-half  hours  of  horse  labor;  cultivation,  five  hours  of 
man  labor  and  ten  hours  of  horse  labor;  husking  from  standing  stalks, 
five  hours  of  man  labor  and  ten  hours  of  horse  labor ;  spreading  manure, 
one  and  one-fourth  hours  of  man  labor  and  two  and  one-half  hours  of 
horse  labor. 

Costs  Vary  in  Different  Sections 

In  large  parts  of  Nebraska,  where  the  land  is  very  level  and  the 
fields  are  large,  and  where  plowing  and  planting  are  done  at  the  same 
time  by  means  of  the  lister,  an  acre  of  corn  requires  only  about  fourteen 
hours  of  man  labor  and  thirty-eight  hours  of  horse  labor.  In  Indiana, 
however,  where  the  fields  are  smaller,  and  where  the  combination  of 
heavy  spring  rains  and  a  clay  soil  make  plowing  and  disking  more  diffi- 
cult, an  acre  of  corn  husked  from  the  standing  stalks  may  require  as 
much  as  twenty-four  hours  of  man  labor  and  fifty-eight  hours  of  horse 
labor.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Corn  Belt,  because  of  the  smaller 
fields  and  smaller  farms,  they  do  not  use  gang  plows  and  five-horse 
teams  as  generally  as  in  the  western  part  of  the  Corn  Belt.  In  their 
husking  operations,  also,  they  tend  to  cling  to  the  old-fashioned  husking 
peg  instead  of  adopting  the  somewhat  more  speedy  husking  hook. 

Share  Tenant's  Cost  of  Production 

The  cost  to  the  share  tenant  of  producing  an  acre  of  corn  in  the 
central  part  of  the  corn  belt  is  the  value  of  the  man  labor  plus  the  cost 
of  the  horse  labor  plus  the  cost  of  the  machinery.  With  single  men  get- 
ting $51  a  month  and  board,  it  may  roughly  be  figured  that  the  cost  of 
an  hour  of  man  labor  is  around  34  cents.  The  cost  of  an  hour  of  horse 
labor  is  roughly  equivalent  to  the  value  of  one-tenth  of  a  bushel  of  oats 
plus  one-tenth  of  a  bushel  of  corn  plus  five  pounds  of  hay,  or  with  corn 
at  70  cents  a  bushel,  oats  at  40  cents  a  bushel  and  hay  at  $16  a  ton,  it 
maj^  be  said  that  the  cost  of  an  hour  of  horse  labor  would  be  around  15 
cents.  With  values  as  just  stated,  a  share  tenant  in  the  central  part 
of  the  Corn  Belt  would  invest  in  his  acre  of  corn  about  sixteen  hours 


120  rORX  AND  CORX-GROWING 

of  man  labor  at  34  cents  an  hour,  or  $5.44,  and  forty-two  hours  of  horse 
labor  at  15  cents  an  hour,  or  $6.30,  making-  a  total  cost  of  $11.74  an  acre 
for  man  and  horse  labor. 

The  machinery  ami  mijccllaiicons  item  ehar;.ie  amounts  roughly  to 
two  per  cent  of  the  value  of  a  gang  plow  plus  the  value  of  a  corn  culti- 
vator plus  the  value  of  a  20-foot  harrow.  Before  the  war,  this  amounted 
to  about  $2  an  acre,  during  the  Avar  to  about  $4  an  acre,  and  since  the 
war  to  about  $3.40. 

Adding'  $3.40  to  the  $11.74,  we  get  $15.14  as  the  total  cost  to  the 
share  tenant  of  producing  an  acre  of  corn  Avhen  single  men  are  getting 
$51  a  month  and  board,  and  when  horses  are  eating  corn  worth  70  cents 
a  bushel,  oats  worth  40  cents  a  bushel  and  hay  worth  $16  a  ton.  In  re- 
turn for  his  investment  of  $15.14,  the  share  tenant  gets  half  the  corn 
crop.  If  the  yield  is  40  bushels  an  acre,  as  is  customary  in  the  best 
parts  of  the  Corn  Belt  where  this  method  of  renting  is  most  commonly 
met  Avith,  the  cost  of  producing  a  bushel  of  corn,  so  far  as  the  share 
tenant  is  concerned,  is  $15.14  divided  by  20,  or  75.7  cents.  With  a  30- 
bushel  crop,  the  cost  to  the  share  tenant  Avould  be  $1.01,  and  with  a  60- 
bushel  crop,  50.5  cents  a  bushel. 

This  Avould  be  on  the  assumption  that  there  is  no  more  labor  in- 
volved in  the  large  crop  than  in  the  small  crop.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  husking  charge  varies  directly  with  the  size  of  the  crop,  and  taking 
this  into  account,  the  cost  to  the  share  tenant  of  a  30-bushel  yield  of 
corn  would  be  only  97.5  cents  instead  of  $1.01,  and  of  the  60-bushel  yield. 
54.5  cents  instead  of  50  5  cents. 

Owner's  Cost  of  Production 

The  farmer  Avho  owns  his  land  has  all  the  expenses  of  the  share 
tenant  plus  the  taxes  and  the  interest  on  the  investment  in  his  land.  If 
he  paid  $170  an  acre  for  his  land,  he  has,  at  five  per  cent,  an  interest 
charge  of  $8.50  an  acre,  and  in  addition  there  is  probably  a  tax  of  at 
least  $1.50  an  acre,  making  a  total  of  $10  an  acre.  Ten  dollars  plus  the 
$15.14  Avhich  represents  the  man  labor,  horse  labor  and  machinery  charge, 
gives  a  total  of  $25.14.  With  a  yield  of  forty  bushels  per  acre,  the  cost 
per  bushel  would  be  62.8  cents. 

This  represents  the  cost  of  the  corn  in  the  crib  in  December,  and 
makes  no  allowance  for  shrinkage.  If  the  corn  is  to  be  held  until  the 
following  summer,  the  shrinkage,  which  on  the  average  amounts  to  about 
16  per  cent,  plus  the  interest  on  the  value  of  the  corn,  will  raise  the 
cost  by  about  13  cents  a  bushel,  or  to  a  total  of  about  76  cents.  If  the 
corn  is  then  to  be  shelled  and  hauled  to  market,  there  will  be  an  addi- 
tional cost  amounting  to  at  least  four  or  five  cents  a  bushel. 

Reducing  Costs 

There  is  no  easy  way  of  reducing  corn  production  costs.  In  sections 
where  the  fields  are  large  and  level,  production  costs  can  g-enerally  be 
reduced  several  cents  a  busliel  if  gang  plows  are  substituted  for  sulky 


COST  OF  CORN  PRODUCTION  121 

plows  and  two-row  cultivators  for  the  ordinary  single-row.  In  some 
sections  it  may  be  possible  to  reduce  costs  slightly  by  substituting  tractor 
plowing  for  horse  plowing.  Some  of  the  tractor  people  who  use  the  trac- 
tor for  corn  cultivating  as  well  as  plowing,  disking,  harrowing  and  plant- 
ing, have  carried  an  acre  of  corn  up  to  husking  time  with  the  expendi- 
ture of  only  five  hours  of  man  labor  and  five  hours  of  tractor  labor. 
This  contrasts  with  9.75  hours  of  man  labor  and  29.5  hours  of  horse 
labor  for  doing  the  same  work  in  the  ordinary  way.  Of  course,  the  trac- 
tor was  used  with  a  two-row  cultivator  and  the  job  of  cultivating  the 
first  time  over  may  not  have  been  quite  as  good  as  with  the  single-row, 
horse-drawn  cultivator.  The  tractor  is  worth  while  watching,  however, 
as  a  possible  means  of  reducing  labor  costs  on  large,  level  farms. 

As  a  rule,  however,  the  methods  commonly  used  in  a  locality  are 
so  well  adapted  to  the  situation  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  change 
in  the  machinery  which  will  result  in  a  saving  of  more  than  a  cent  or 
two  per  bushel. 

Land  owning  farmers  can  reduce  production  costs  most  effectively 
by  rotating  crops  and  applying  manure.  Improving  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  soil  by  ten  bushels  per  acre  will  ordinarily  do  more  than 
anything  else  to  reduce  production  costs. 

One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  lowering  corn  production  costs  is  to  use 
the  highest  yielding  variety  possible.  In  every  locality  there  are  farm- 
ers growing  varieties  which  yield  five  or  ten  bushels  per  acre  less  than 
the  better  sorts  would  yield  on  the  same  land.  Every  two  or  three  years 
it  is  good  practice  to  buy  a  few  pecks  of  seed  corn  Avhich  has  a  reputa- 
tion for  high  yielding  power  in  order  to  compare  it  side  by  side  with 
the  home  corn. 

Another  possible  way  of  reducing  costs  is  to  save  five  hours  of 
man  labor  and  ten  hours  of  horse  labor  per  acre  by  using  hogs  to  do 
the  harvesting.  With  man  labor  at  34  cents  an  hour  and  horse  labor 
at  15  cents,  this  Avill  reduce  the  cost  per  acre  by  about  $3.20,  or,  roughly, 
eight  cents  a  bushel.  However,  hogs  during  late  September,  October 
and  November  can  utilize  only  a  limited  acreage  to  the  best  advantage 
in  this  way.  In  wet  falls,  unfortunately,  the  hogs  waste  considerable 
corn.     See  Chapter  17  for  further  discussion. 

When  corn  husking  machines  are  further  perfected,  and  especially 
when  varieties  are  developed  which  are  adapted  to  the  corn  husking 
machine,  it  maj^  be  possible  by  making  an  investment  of  several  hundred 
dollars  in  a  husking  machine  to  save  much  of  the  man  labor  require:!  in 
husking. 

Cost  of  Producing  Silage 

Silage  corn  as  grown  in  the  Corn  Belt  requires  the  same  man  and 
horse  labor  per  acre  up  through  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation  as  ordi- 
nary corn,  or,  roughly,  11  man  hours  and  32  horse  hours.  At  34  cents 
an  hour  for  man  labor  and  15  cents  an  hour  for  horse  labor,  this  amounts 


]2l:  corn  AXD  CORX-GROWIXG 

to  $8.54.  The  labor  at  silo  filliiif;'  time  varies  considerably  with  the 
distance  of  the  field  from  the  silo,  but  averages  per  acre  about  as  fol- 
lows : 

Man         Horse 
labor  labor 

Cutting  with  binder 1.7  5.1 

Loading  bundles  4  .9 

Hauling  from  field  and  unloading 7.0  14.0 

Running  engine  and  cutter 3.0 

Packing  in  silo  2.9 

Total  hours  per  acre  for  corn  cutting  and  silo 

filling  15.0  20.0 

At  34:  cents  an  hour  for  man  labor  and  ]5  cents  an  hour  for  horse 
labor,  the  labor  charge  for  silo  filling  operations  would  be  $8.10  per  acre. 
The  total  labor  of  growing  an  acre  of  silage  corn,  in  the  center  of  the 
Corn  Belt,  is  about  26  hours  of  man  labor  and  52  hours  of  horse  labor, 
or,  with  prices  as  mentioned,  a  total  labor  charge  of  $16.64.  The  in- 
terest and  depreciation  on  the  silo  is  roughly  $4  an  acre,  and  the  ma- 
chinery and  equipment  charge  is  $6.  About  3.5  pounds  of  twine  are 
used  per  acre,  or,  roughly,  40  cents'  worth.  If  the  use  of  40-bushel  corn 
land  (eight-ton  silage  land)  is  put  in  at  $10  per  acre,  we  get  a  total  of 
$37.04  per  acre  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  production  of  corn 
husked  from  standing  stalks  costs  $25.14.  The  silage  at  eight  tons  to 
the  acre,  would  cost  about  $4.86  per  ton  under  the  same  conditions  as 
the  corn  would  cost  62.8  cents  a  bushel  in  the  crib  in  December. 


CHAPTER  24 

INSECTS  OF  CORN 

INSECTS  that  attack  com  are  numerous,  but  mo.st  of  them  do  not  cause 
serious  damag-e.  Occasionally  local  attacks  are  severe  and  the  entire 
crop  of  a  community  will  be  destroyed  as  a  result  of  the  work  of  a  par- 
ticular insect.  Control  measures,  to  be  practical,  should  "be  simple, 
cheap  and  easily  applied. 

Most  common  corn  insects  have  four  stages  in  their  life  history, 
which  may  last  a  part  of  a  year,  one  year  or  several  years.  The  four 
stages  are  the  egg,  larva,  pupa  and  adult  stage.  An  adult  insect  usually 
deposits  .several  hundred  eggs  and  its  function  in  life  is  completed.  The 
eggs,  as  a  rule,  hatch  out  quickly  into  the  larval  or  worm  stage.  After 
the  worm  finishes  feeding,  it  turns  into  the  pupal  or  resting  stage.  From 
the  pupa  emerges  the  adult  as  the  butterfly  does  from  the  cocoon.  Some 
insects  such  as  the  aphis  bear  live  young. 

The  description  of  the  insect,  life  history,  the  character  of  damage 
done  and  the  control  measures  are  given  of  the  important  insects  of  corn 
in  the  Corn  Belt.  The  insects  are  divided  into  five  classes,  those  that 
work  primarily  on  the  (1 )  roots,  (2)  stalks,  (3)  leaves,  (4)  entire  plant, 
(5)  stored  grain. 

INSECTS  THAT  WORK  ON  THE  ROOTS 
Wire-worm 

The  common  wire-worms  are  reddish-bjown  in  color,  hard  and  rather 
shiny  in  appearance,  cylindrical  in  shape  and  an  inch  or  more  in  length. 
The  adults  are  boat-shaped  fellows,  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long  and  brown  or  black  in  color.  They  are  known  as  "click  beetles'' 
or  "snapping  beetles,"  from  the  snapping  noise  they  make  when  on  their 
backs. 

The  wire-worm  changes  to  the  pupal  stage  in  July  or  early  August. 
Only  two  or  three  weeks  are  spent  in  this  stage  before  changing  to  the 
beetle.  The  beetle,  hoAvever,  spends  the  winter  in  the  pupal  cell  and 
comes  out  the  next  spring.  It  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  soil.  The  larvae 
hatch  out  in  a  few  days  and  begin  feeding.  The  corn  wire-worm  may 
spend  as  long  a  time  as  five  years  in  the  soil,  while  the  wheat  wire-worm 
spends  only  three. 

The  failure  of  seed  to  sprout  or  the  withering  of  corn  plants  at  two 
feet  or  less  in  height,  often  indicates  wire-worm  attack.  Wire-worms 
feed  first  on  the  seed  itself,  later  on  the  roots.  If  the  affected  field 
has  been  in  grass  a  year  or  so  previous,  the  injury  is  most  likely  to  be 


124 


CORN  AND  CORX-GEOWING 


that  of  wire-worms.  The  larvae  do 
not  cause  any  visible  injury  to  g-rass. 
However,  when  ^rass  land  is  put  into 
corn,  the  wire-worms  concentrate 
upon  the  hills  of  the  planted  <iTain 
and  cause  much  damage. 

Wire-worms  are  difficult  to  con- 
trol because,  (1)  they  work  under- 
ground; (2)  they  cling  to  life;  (3) 
there  are  several  injurious  specimens 
of  wire-worms  requiring  different 
methods  of  control. 

There  are  many  useless  or  im- 
practical control  measures  often  rec- 
ommended. They  are  (1)  coating 
the  seed  with  various  poisons  or  re- 
pellants,  such  as  tar,  kerosene,  Paris 
green  and  strychnine — an  Iowa 
county  agent  says  the  insects  enjoy 
and  eat  the  protected  kernels  more 
readily;  (2)  treating  the  soil  with 
salt,  and  (3)  plowing  late  in  the  fall. 
There  seems  to  be  no  practical  way 
of  controlling  wire-worms. 


Corn  Root  Aphis 

(a)  Wire  worm  beetle  or  click  beetle.  The    corn    root    aphis    or    root 

(b)    Wire   worm.      (Much   enlarged ;    louse  is  a  tinv  blue-green  adult.     The 
the   full   grown    wire    worm    is   only  ^   ,.  i  •'  ,    ,     ,   ,     ^  ^i 

about  11/2  inches  long.)  root  lice  which  hatch  from  the  eggs 

in  the  spring  are  all  the  same  sex, 
females,  which  produce  during  the  summer  ten  to  twenty  generations  of 
live  young.  These  females  are  found  throughout  the  spring  and  summer 
and  the  males  do  not  appear  until  the  fall.  The  root  lice  multiply  very 
rapidly  and  cause  much  damage  to  growing  plants.  Most  of  them  are 
wingless,  but  occasionally  winged  forms  are  found.  In  the  fall,  both 
males  and  females  appear.  ^Mating  takes  place,  and  the  females  deposit 
eggs,  instead  of  producing  young.  These  eggs  are  taken  up  by  the  little 
brown  ants,  which  care  for  them  in  their  nests  during  the  winter.  The 
root  lice  are  very  Avell  cared  for  by  the  ants,  because  the  aphis  secretes 
a  sweet  substance,  "honey-dew,"  of  which  the  ants  are  fond. 

The  presence  of  the  corn  root  aphis  in  a  field  of  growing  corn  is 
usually  shown  by  (1)  a  dwarfing  of  the  plants  and  a  yellowing  or  red- 
dening of  the  leaves;  (2)  finding  numerous  ant  hills  near  affected 
stalks;  (3)  the  presence  of  many  lice  on  the  main  roots.  The  tiny  lice 
suck  the  juices  from  tiie  roots,  thereby  weakening  the  growth  and  re- 
ducing the  vield. 


INSECTS  OF  CORN 


125 


Crop  rotation  is  the  most  offectivo  measure  against  the  root 
aphis,  although  it  feeds  on  other  plants  than  corn.  Where  crop  rotation 
with  only  one  or  two  consecutive  crops  of  corn  is  practiced,  little  injury 
occurs.  The  other  croiis  jiTOwn  are  not  much  affected,  as  corn  is  the 
favorite  food  of  the  corn  aphis.  If  it  is  not  practical  to  rotate,  deep 
and  frequent  cultivation  early  in  the  season  may  help. 


Corn  Root  Worm 

The  root  worms  arc  ,-mall,  slender,  white  grubs,  a'.out  half  an  iueli 
lonu'  when  full  grown.  The  northern  form  of  the  root  worm  in  its  adult 
stage  is  a  plain  grass-green  beetle,  _  ^  .     .^ 

about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  The 
beetle  of  the  southern  root  worm  is 
green,  with  twelve  black  spots  on  its 
back.  It  is  also  somewhat  larger 
than  the  plain  green  beetle,  measur- 
ing nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long. 

In  the  fall,  the  beetle  of  the 
northern  form  may  be  seen  on  the 
silk  of  corn  and  the  flowers  of  the 
goldenrod.  The  beetles  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  soil  near  the  stalks  of 
corn.  The  next  spring  these  eggs 
hatch  out  early.  The  young  root 
worms  begin  to  attack  the  corn  al- 
most as  soon  as  it  is  out  of  the 
ground.  Throughout  the  summer, 
the  larvae  work  on  the  roots.  When 
the  larvae  mature,  they  change  to 

the  pupal  stage,  in  which  they  spend  only  a  short  time.  The  plain  green 
beetle  emerges  from  this  pupa  and  the  life  history  is  repeated.  The 
black-spotted  beetles  of  the  southern  corn  root  worm  are  found  not  only 
in  the  fall,  but  all  through  the  season,  from  early  spring  onward.  There 
seem  to  be  at  least  two  generations  of  them  during  the  year.  The  life 
history  of  the  southern  corn  root  worm  is  similar  to  that  of  the  northern 
form,  except  that  it  is  passed  through  in  a  much  shorter  time. 

Corn  is  the  only  food  plant  of  the  northern  root  worm.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  southern  root  worms  have  been  found  in  wheat,  rye. 
millet  and  other  grasses.  The  northern  form  does  more  injury  to  the 
corn  in  the  north.  The  withering  of  young  plants  and  the  blowing  over 
of  the  stalks  may  be  due  to  the  root  worm.  However,  more  often  these 
conditions  are  due  to  other  factors. 

If  the  plain  green  or  the  black-spotted  beetles  are  seen  in  very  large 
numbers  feeding  on  the  silks  of  the  corn  in  the  fall,  it  is  an  indication 
that  a  corn  field  on  the  same  piece  of  ground  will  be  infested  with  the 
root  worms  the  next  year.     Those  fields  should  be  i)lanted  to  some  other 


g«:^23!:^3EXI^> 


(a>  Corn  root  worm  beetle  is  grass 
green  in  color  and  is  found  in  late 
Jr.ly  and  August,  feeding  on  corn 
tassels  and  corn  silk,  (b)  Corn  root 
worm  burrows  into  corn  roots,  caus- 
ing corn  to  blow  down  easily  in  late 
summer.    (Enlarged.) 


126  CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

crop  than  corn,  and  the  corn  put  on  a  new  field.  Rotation  is  an  almost 
infallible  cure  for  the  northern  corn  root  worm,  but  is  not  such  a  certain 
l)reventive  of  the  southern  form. 

White  Grub  Worm 

The  grub  is  a  large  white  insect  with  a  reddish-brown  head.  It  is 
similar  to  the  grub  found  in  manure  piles,  although  the  latter  is  not 
injurious  to  corn.  The  parent  form  of  the  white  grub  is  the  common 
May  beetle  or  June  bug,  the  large,  black  or  brownish  beetle  which  flies 
to  the  lights  in  ]Mav  and  earlv  June. 


V     '^'^^  /'^  The  beetles  hide  in  the  grass  all 

•        Ndw^  i\  /y'y^      (lay  an,;]  after  sun-down  feed  on  th'^ 


/f  1h\  '"^MJ  "  "^^"^  leaves  of  trees,  often  doing  consider 
ngH  vv  V^"^  7  ^^^^^'  damage.  They  deposit  their 
(  a    )         b      '^'^^-^'^f        eggs  in  rather  compact  soil,  usuall\ 

,  ^    ^  ,  ,  sod    ground,    during    June.     These 

(a)   June  bug.     (e)  Full-grown  white  i    ^  i  i  ^i  11 

grub  ready   to   pupate.      (d)    Half-   ^ggs  hatch  and  the  young  grubs  be- 

grown  grub  at  stage  when  it  does   gin  to   feed  upon   the   roots   of   the 

ducedT^    (damage    to    corn.      (Re-   gTass  that  summer.      Grubs  do   not 

become  full  groAvn  for  two  years,  and 
even  then  they  remain  in  the  soil  for  a  third  winter,  emerging  as  beetles 
nearh'  three  years  after  the  eggs  were  deposited.  A  generalized  life 
history  is  as  follows  : 

First  year — In  May  the  beetles  emerge  from  the  soil,  feed,  and  de- 
posit eggs.     Larvae  hatch,  begin  to  feed,  and  winter  over  in  the  soil. 

Second  year — Larvae  feed  during  the  season.  The  most  damage  to 
crops  is  caused  this  year.  The  larvae  winter  over  in  the  soil  practically 
full  grown. 

Third  year — Larvae  feed  early  in  the  season,  pupate  in  June  or  July, 
and  change  to  beetles  a  few  Aveeks  later.  The  beetles  stay  in  the  soil 
over  winter. 

Fourth  year — Same  as  the  first.  Beetles  emerge  in  ]\Iay  and  early 
June. 

The  presence  of  the  white  grub  is  indicated  by  (1)  dwarfing  of  the 
plant,  (2)  killing  of  the  plant  in  any  stage  of  growth,  (3)  weak  root 
system,  (4)  falling  of  the  stalk.  The  grubs  are  not  known  to  infest  such 
crops  as  clover,  alfalfa  or  buckwheat;  these  may  safely  follow  sod  in  a 
"grub  year."  Small  grains  are  attacked  by  the  grubs,  but  to  a  less 
extent  than  corn  or  potatoes. 

Under  certain  conditions,  grubs  may  be  controlled  by  an  intelligent 
rotation,  particularly  in  a  district  known  to  be  badly  infested.  Grubs 
are  usually  abundant  near  wooded  areas.  When  grubs  are  expected 
in  any  particular  year,  corn  should  not  follow  sod.  It  may  safely  follow 
a  cultivated  crop.     By  referring  to  the  generalized  life  cycle,  one  may 


INSECTS  OF  CORN  127 

determine  when  to  expect  damap-e  by  gTiibs.  For  instance,  if  the  beetles 
are  exceptionally  abundant  one  year,  a  laro-e  number  of  grubs  may  be 
expected  the  next  year.  In  any  given  locality,  the  grubs  are  likely  to 
be  numerous  at  three-year  intervals.  For  example,  northeastern  Iowa 
has  had  outbreaks  in  1912,  1915,  1918  and  1921.  If  the  two-year-old 
grubs  are  damaging  corn,  there  is  no  practical  measure  to  get  rid  of 
them  at  once  without  injuring  the  crop.  However,  such  measures  as  fall 
plowing,  rotation  and  turning  hogs  in  on  grub  infested  land  may  par- 
tially prevent  further  injury.  Hogs  turned  into  infested  fields  by  the 
middle  of  October,  before  the  grubs  go  deep,  will  rapidly  clear  out  most 
of  the  grubs.  The  only  objection  to  turning  in  hogs  is  that  occasionally 
they  become  infested  with  the  thorn-headed  worm,  which  is  a  parasite 
of  both  hogs  and  white  grubs.  Because  the  grubs  go  deeper  into  the  soil 
for  the  winter,  early  fall  plowing  is  of  some  value,  as  it  brings  the  grubs 
to  the  surface  and  crushes  many  of  them. 

INSECTS  THAT  WORK  ON  THE  STALKS 

Cut- worm 

Full  grown  cut-worms  are  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long,  usu- 
ally dull  in  color.  Rarely,  as  with  the  variegated  cut-worm  which 
attacks  clover,  are  they  well  marked  or  striped.  Late  in  June  or  early 
in  July  the  mature  larva  forms  a  loose  cell  in  the  soil,  changes  to  the 
pupal  stage,  and  a  few  dayfi  later  to  the  adult  or  moth.  ]\Ioths  of  the 
various  species  are  much  alike.  All  are  dull  in  appearance  and  brown 
in  color,  with  the  hind  wings  lighter  than  the  fore  wings. 

The  moths  deposit  eggs  in  the  grass  lands  late  in  the  season.  The 
larvae  hatch  the  same  fall  and  spend  the  winter  in  the  soil  partly  grown. 
Consequently,  they  are  of  good  size  by  the  time  the  young  corn  plants 
are  pushing  their  way  through  the  ground.  There  is  usually  only  one 
generation  each  year. 

The  cutting  off  of  the  stalk  at  the  base  of  the  plant,  at  or  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  is  the  work  of  the  cut-worms.  Usually,  the 
insect  responsible  for  the  damage  may  be  found  in  the  soil  near  the  plant 
attacked. 

If  cut-worms  are  present  in  a  corn  field,  the  only  two  measures  to 
be  taken  are  replanting  and  poisoning.  Replanting  should  be  delayed 
until  damage  by  the  insects  has  practically  ceased.  Although  the  cut- 
worm pupates  in  late  June,  it  usually  does  very  little  severe  damage 
after  warm  weather  comes  on  in  early  June.  A  poison  bait  may  be  made 
by  mixing  one  pound  of  Paris  green  with  twenty-five  pounds  of  dry 
bran  or  middlings.  Scattered  over  a  corn  field,  this  bait  attracts  the 
cut- worms,  which  feed  on  it  and  are  killed.  Results  are  sometimes  very 
good,  but  occasionally  this  method  seems  to  be  worthless. 

Early  fall  plowing  of  grass  land  to  be  planted  in  corn  the  next  year 
is  a  preventive  measure.     This  plowing  buries  the  eggs  or  young  larvae 


128  CORX  AND  CORN-GROWING 

so  they  can  not  live  over  winter.  Close  fall  pasturing  of  such  land  is 
also  a  benefit.  Corn  land  should  he  disked  and  harrowed  as  much  as 
possible  before  planting'. 

Chinch  Bug 

The  adult  form  of  the  chinch  bup-  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  lon-^', 
black  in  color,  with  the  under  winj:s  whitish.  These  wino's  cross  on  the 
back  of  the  in.sect.  forming-  a  sort  of  an  X-shaped  mark.     Young-  chinch 


Adult  winged  forms  of  chinch  bug.    The  larval  form,  which  invades  corn  fields, 
looks  like  this,  but  has  no  wings. 

bugs  are  pale  yellow  at  first,  becoming  quite  reddish  later.  At  first, 
there  are  no  traces  of  wings,  but  in  the  later  stages  wing  pads  appear. 
Chinch  bugs  shed  their  skins  four  times  and  after  the  fourth  moult  be- 
come full  grown. 

During  the  winter,  chinch  bugs  hibernate  in  clumps  of  grass  and 
along  fences  and  hedge  rows.  In  April  they  go  to  the  wheat  fields, 
which  offer  plenty  of  food  at  this  time.  They  soon  deposit  their  eggs 
and  their  young  feed  on  the  wheat.  At  wheat  harvest,  the  bugs  of  the 
preceding  year  are  dead  and  the  young  ones  have  not  developed  wings. 
The  bugs  seek  green  food,  and  since  they  are  unable  to  fly,  they  crawl 
from  one  field  to  another.  Growing  corn  at  this  time  is  especially  tempt- 
ing to  the  partly  grown  chinch  bugs,  and  the  object  of  the  control  mea- 
sures is  to  keep  the  bugs  out  of  the  corn.  Chinch  bugs  mature  in  the 
corn  field  in  July  and  deposit  eggs  for  a  second  generation.  They  grow 
rapidly  and  feed  on  the  corn.  In  September,  the  second  generation 
matures  and  spends  the  winter  as  adults. 

Since  1900  most  chinch  bug  damage  has  been  to  corn  south  of  the 
southern  Iowa  line.  Back  in  1887,  however,  chinch  bug  injury  was 
noticeable  in  three-fourths  of  the  counties  of  Iowa.  Damage  to  corn 
occurs,  for  the  most  part,  in  midsummer,  when  the  growing  bugs  pass 
from  ripening  wheat  to  corn.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the 
chinch  bug  will  not  become  dangerous  in  localities  where  no  wheat  is 
grown,  although  such  usually  is  the  ca.se.  Chinch  bugs  drive  their  beaks 
into  the  plant  tis.sue  and  suck  the  juices. 


INSECTS  OF  CORN  129 

In  general,  the  four  control  methods  for  the  chinch  bug-  are  (1) 
cleaning-  all  rubbish  and  waste  places,  (2)  barriers  around  fields,  (3) 
spraying,  and   (4)  natural  enemies. 

Since  the  chinch  bugs  hibernate  in  clumps  of  Avild  grass  and  similar 
places,  much  benefit  may  be  obtained  by  burning  rubbish  along  fences 
and  hedge  rows,  in  the  winter.  Clean  culture  does  away  with  hiber- 
nating places  in  a  field. 

As  wheat  harvest  in  an  infested  field  draws  near,  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  insects  from  entering  the  corn  field  should  be  taken.  This  is 
best  done  by  making  barrier  lines  of  some  repellant,  such  as  road  oil  or 
creosote,  around  the  infested  field.  The  road  oil  barrier  must  be  kept  so 
sticky  that  the  chinch  bugs  can  not  cross  it,  but  the  creosote  acts  on  ac- 
count of  its  repellant  odor.  The  strip  of  oil  should  be  half  an  inch  thick 
or  more.  Post  holes  about  two  feet  deep  should  be  dug  at  intervals  of 
about  twenty  feet,  along  the  oil  line.  A  little  kerosene  poured  into  these 
holes  will  kill  the  bugs  that  collect.  These  barriers  must  be  kept 
freshened. 

Calcium  cyanide  was  extensively  used  as  a  chinch  bug  barrier  for  the 
first  time  in  1923.  It  seems  to  be  quite  satisfactory,  but  rather  expen- 
sive. After  more  experimentation  has  been  done,  further  information 
should  be  obtained  from  the  ^Missouri  and  Illinois  stations. 

Once  the  bugs  are  in  a  corn  field,  spraying  with  tobacco  extract  or 
kerosene  emulsion  is  the  only  measure  available.  This  is  usually  im- 
practical. 

The  natural  insect  enemies  of  the  chinch  bug  are  not  numerous,  nor 
do  they  thrive  in  hot,  dry  weather.  On  the  other  hand,  chinch  bugs 
are  the  more  numerous  and  thrive  best  under  these  conditions.  How- 
ever, the  natural  enemies  have  done  much  to  reduce  the  number  and  ex- 
tent of  chinch  bug  attacks. 

In  southern  Illinois  they  have  found  it  well  worth  while  to  reduce 
chinch  bug  damage  by  growing  varieties  of  corn  with  unusually  large, 
sturdy  stalks,  wide  leaves,  and  more  than  usually  vigorous  root's.  The 
Democrat  or  Champion  White  Pearl  is  probably  the  best  of  these  varie- 
ties. Under  conditions  of  moderately  severe  chinch  bug  infestation,  the 
Democrat  will  yield  twice  as  much  as  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  whereas,  on 
the  same  soil,  without  chinch  bugs,  the  Reid  corn  will  usually  yield  'two 
or  three  bushels  more  per  acre. 

Corn  Bill-Bug 

There  are  several  kinds  of  bill-bugs.  Most  of  them  are  black  or 
brown  in  color.  All  are  beetles  with  hard  backs  and  long  snouts,  which 
make, the  holes  in  the  leaf  blades.  In  the  grub  stage,  the  corn  bill-bugs 
feed  on  the  roots  of  certain  grasses.  One  of  the  most  common  species 
feeds  on  timothy  roots. 

In  general,  the  insects  spend  the  winter  in  the  beetle  stage  and 
work  in  this  stage  upon  the  young  corn  plants  in  the  late  spring.     In 


130  ('ORX  AND  COKX-OKOWIXG 

the  early  suninier,  the  beetles  deposit  their  eggs  on  timothy  and  other 
grasses.  The  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  grubs  feed  on  the  grass  roots 
until  early  fall,  when  the  adult  beetles  appear.  Before  changing  to 
beetles,  the  grubs  enter  the  pupal  stage  for  a  short  period. 

The  tender  leaves  injured  by  rows  of  holes  cut  across  the  blade,  is 
the  work  of  the  corn  bill-bugs.  The  injury  occurs  when  the  plant  is  a 
few  inches  high,  and  the  leaf  blade  is  still  within  the  sheath  of  the  corn 
stalk.  The  holes  do  not  become  coni^ipicuous  until  the  blade  has  grown 
out.  Since  the  blade  is  curled  up  within  the  leaf  sheath,  one  hole  made 
in  the  leaf  sheath  means  six  or  eight  holes  in  the  curled  leaf  blade.  Corn 
]ilauted  on  timothy  sod  that  has  been  infested  with  these  grubs  is  likely 
to  be  damaged,  especially  if  the  sod  has  been  turned  under  in  the  spring. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  early  fall  or  summer  plowing  of  sod  lands 
which  are  infested  with  these  grubs,  reduces  greatly  the  injury  if  corn 
is  put  in  the  field  the  following  year.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  disturbs 
the  insects  so  that  they  are  unable  to  survive  the  winter. 

Army  Worm 

The  army  worm  resembles  the  eut-worm.  The  color  varies  from 
yellow  to  brown  or  black.  There  are  three  stripes,  a  middle  black  one 
and  an  upper  and  lower  yellowish  one,  on  each  side.  The  worm  pupates 
in  the  soil.  The  pupa  gives  rise  in  ten  to  twenty  days  to  a  moth.  The 
moth  is  a  night-flying  insect  and  is  often  attracted  in  large  numbers  to 
light.  The  fore  wings  of  the  moth  are  yellowish-brown  in  color  and  are 
marked  with  a  small  white  speck  near  their  center.  Each  female  moth 
is  cai>able  of  laying  about  700  eggs. 

These  eggs  hatch  into  small  green  worms  in  about  eight  to  twelve 
days.  The  young  worms  eat  but  little  and  feed  close  to  the  ground. 
They  may  be  in  a  field  in  great  numbers  and  still  escape  detection.  The 
worms  are  nearly  full  grown  before  injury  becomes  serious.  Three  to 
five  weeks  are  required  for  full  growth.  The  worms  then  are  one  and 
one-half  inches  long  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide. 

While  the  army  worms  prefer  to  breed  and  feed  in  grass  or  small 
grain  growing  in  low  and  moist  parts  of  fields,  they  become  so  abun- 
dant and  food  material  so  scarce,  that  the  worms  are  forced  to  seek  other 
places  for  their  food.  On  such  occasions,  the  worms  migrate  in  vast 
armies  and  enter  a  corn  field  if  it  is  in  their  path.  The  migrating  worms 
climb  the  stalks  and  strip  the  plants  of  their  leaves.  The  worms  hide 
(luring  the  daytime  under  clods  of  dirt  and  rubbish,  and  feed  during  the 
night. 

There  arc  several  control  measures  for  the  army  worm.  Infested 
areas  may  be  mowed,  covered  with  straw  and  burned.  If  migrating, 
the  worms  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying.  ])y  scattering  poisoned  bait, 
similar  to  that  used  for  cut-worms,  or  by  trenching,  as  described  for 
tile  clnueh  bnsr. 


INSECTS  OF  CORN  1:J1 

Grasshoppers 

There  are  several  species  of  grasshoppers.  ]\Iost  every  one  is  fa- 
miliar with  the  ordinary  adult  which  does  the  damage  to  crops.  The 
habits  of  the  nsiial  species  are  much  alike.  The  grasshopper  has  no  lar- 
val stage. 

The  grasshoppers  usually  lay  their  eggs  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and 
then^die.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  masses  in  the  ground.  As  many  as  127 
eggs  have  been  found  in  a  single  egg  mass  laid  by  one  of  the  large  species 
of  hoppers.  Each  female  ordinarily  produces  two  eg^  masses.  The  eggs 
remain  in  the  ground  over  winter.  The  following  spring,  during  ~\Iay 
and  June,  the  eggs  are  hatched.  The  young  insects  feed  and  grow  and 
at  intervals  shed  their  hard  skin.  After  the  skin  has  been  moulted  for 
the  fifth  time,  the  insect  is  fully  Avinged  and  the  females  are  ready  to 
lay  eggs. 

Ordinarily,  grasshoppers  do  not  breed  in  corn  fields,  but  may  in- 
vade such  fields  from  neighboring  ones  where  alfalfa,  grain  or  grass  is 
grown,  or  from  uniilowed  edges  of  fields  and  roads.  They  eat  the 
leaves,  silks  and  husks  of  the  corn  plant. 

There  are  several  control  methods.  Poison  bait  made  as  follows  is 
good  : 

Bran   or  mixed  bran  and   sawdust 25  pounds 

White  arsenic  or  Paris  green 1  pound 

Salt  1  pound 

rheap  molasses  2  quarts 

Water 10   quarts 

Amyl  acetate  (technical)  1  ounce 

This  amount  of  bait  is  sufficient  to  scatter  over  two  acres.  It  slumld 
be  scattered  early  in  the  morning. 

Corn  Ear-Worm 

The  ear-worm  is  the  common  greenish  or  brownish  worm  that  eats 
into  the  ears  of  both  dent  and  sweet  corn.     The  adult  is  a  brown  moth. 

As  there  are  three  generations  in  one  year,  and  each  female  produces 
200  to  300  eggs,  this  insect  can  increase  rapidly.  They  go  over  the 
Avinter  in  the  pupal  stage.  The  moth  emerges  early  in  the  spring  and 
deposits  eggs  which  hatch  by  the  time  corn  is  planted.  The  first  two 
generations  live  on  the  leaves,  but  the  third  generation  attacks  the  ears. 

It  is  especially  damaging  to  sweet  corn.  In  the  South  it  plays  havoc 
with  the  dent  varieties.  The  young  worm  begins  to  feed  on  the  silks 
and  kernels  at  the  tip  end  of  the  ear.  The  full  grown  worm  tunnels 
down  the  ear  toward  the  butt  end.  The  same  worm  feeds  on  the  cotton 
boll  the  tomato  and  tobacco  bud. 

There  ai)pears  to  be  no  reliable  measure  for  controlling  the  corn 
ear-worm.  Fall  plowing  has  often  been  recommended,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  this  measure  is  effective.  The  insects  breed  with  such  rapidity  dur- 
ing the  summer  that  any  benefit  of  fall  plowing  is  overcome.  Some 
benefit   has   Ix'cn    obtained   h\   dusting   sweet    corn   during   the   silking 


132  CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

jicrioil.  witli  powdered  lead  arsenate,  but  this  is  not  practical  except 
with  sweet  corn.  Varieties  that  have  lono-,  ti.u"ht-fittin<i'  husks  are  pro- 
tected to  a  certain  degree  from  the  M'ork  of  this  worm.  Late  planted 
corn  seems  to  be  more  susceptible  to  ear-worm  damap-e  than  early  planted 
corn. 

The  ear-worm  should  not  be  confused  with  the  extremely  injurious 
European  corn  borer,  which  is  described  on  paji'e  133. 

American  Stalk  Borers 

There  are  several  kinds  of  stalk  borers.  The  chief  importance  of 
these  insects  is  the  possibilitj'  of  confusing  them  with  the  much-feared 
European  corn  borer,  which  is  described  on  page  133. 

One  stalk  borer  commonly  found  in  the  Corn  Belt  has  broader, 
darker  brown  stripes  than  the  pale  stripes  of  the  European  borer.  It 
does  its  work  early  in  the  season,  whereas  the  European  borer  is  most 
active  after  tasseling  time.  The  American  stalk  borer  does  little  damage 
and  its  control  is  not  important. 

INSECTS  THAT  WORK  ON  THE  ENTIRE  PLANT 

European  Corn  Borer 

The  adult  is  a  moth  which  flies  from  place  to  place  and  deposits 
eggs  upon  the  plants  of  its  choice.  These  eggs  hatch  into  smooth  cater- 
pillars which  bore  into  the  stalk.  In  the  case  of  corn,  the  entire  plant, 
includino-  tassel,  stalk  and  ear,  is  invaded. 


^ ^^  ---M 


European  corn  borer   (greatly  enlarged  I.     The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about 
one  inch  long. 


INSECTS  OF  CORN  133 

The  larvae  pass  the  winter  in  the  stalk.  The  borer  is  rather  lig'ht 
in  color,  with  a  row  of  small,  dark-brown  spots  on  each  segment,  while 
several  dark  brown  or  pink  lines  extend  lengthwise  of  the  body.  Be- 
cause the  adult  is  a  moth,  the  borer  is  easily  spread.  The  moths  either 
fly  or  may  be  blown  for  great  distances. 

It  is  one  of  the  worst  corn  pests  of  Hungary.  It  was  introduced 
into  the  eastern  United  States  in  1917,  and  has  rapidly  moved  west. 
As  yet,  it  has  not  reached  the  center  of  the  Corn  Belt,  but  the  danger 
is  great.  Corn  is  the  preferred  food,  but  it  will  also  attack  many  grain 
crops  and  weeds. 

The  one  practical  method  of  control  when  it  reaches  the  Corn  Belt 
Avill  be  community  co-operation  in  the  careful  burning  of  all  corn  stalks 
before  the  middle  of  May.     Late  planting  may  also  help. 

The  European  corn  borer  has  possibilities  of  causing  as  much  dam- 
age to  the  corn  crop  as  the  boll  weevil  has  caused  to  the  cotton  crop. 
There  is  grave  danger  that  it  will  reach  the  heart  of  the  Corn  Belt 
by  1930. 

INSECTS  THAT  WORK  ON  STORED  CORN 

There  are  several  insects  of  stored  corn,  only  a  few  of  which  are 
mentioned  in  this  chapter.  On  account  of  the  severe  winters,  they  ordi- 
narily do  not  damage  corn  greatly  in  a  large  part  of  the  Corn  Belt, 
especially  the  northern  section. 

The  Angumois  grain  moth,  the  ]\Iediterranean  flour  moth  and  the 
'\^•eevil  are  three  insects  of  stored  corn  that  are  often  found  in  large 
numbers  where  the  storage  temperature  is  above  freezing  during -the 
winter.  The  weevil  is  injurious  to  the  stored  grain  of  many  crops.  The 
small  brown  adult  beetle  punctures  the  kernel  and  inserts  its  egg.  The 
white  larva  or  grub  lives  inside  and  eats  the  kernel.  Several  may  be 
found  in  one  kernel.  The  pupal  stage  is  white  and  transparent.  The 
Mediterranean  flour  moth  is  injurious  to  many  grains,  especially  wheat. 
The  adult  is  a  small  gray  moth.  The  silken  webs  spun  by  the  larvae  are 
troublesome.  The  Angumois  grain  moth  is  not  numerous  in  the  Corn 
Belt.  The  small  round  holes  in  a  kernel  of  corn  are  indications  of  at- 
tack by  this  insect.  The  moths  are  light  brown  in  color.  The  larva 
is  a  small,  whitish  worm. 

Under  farm  conditions,  the  only  practical  control  is  fumigation 
with  carbon  disulphide,  a  heavy  liquid,  which  is  volatile.  The  gas 
formed  is  heavier  than  air,  and  so  the  liquid  must  be  placed  at  the  top 
of  the  room  or  building  to  be  fumigated.  One  pound  is  sufficient  for 
50  to  100  bushels  of  grain,  depending  on  the  temperature  and  the  type 
and  size  of  building  fumigated.  The  gas  is  highly  inflammable,  and 
so  all  lights  and  fires  should  be  kept  away  from  the  building  being  fumi- 
gated. It  is  also  slightly  poisonous.  Hydrocyanic  gas  is  effective  but 
extremely  poisonous.  Heat  may  be  used  in  mills  or  elevators  as  a 
remedv. 


134  CORN  AND  (ORX-GROWING 

Other  Pests 

liirds.  like  the  blac'kl)ir(l  and  crow,  eat  a  large  amount  of  the  planted 
seed,  and  in  some  eases  some  of  the  crop.  Rodents  and  rabbits  often 
cause  a  reduced  stand  by  eating  the  seed.  Some  farmers  attempt  to 
])oison  these  pests.  Others  spread  a  bushel  or  so  of  well-soaked  corn 
in  a  field  adjacent  to  a  newly-planted  field  of  corn.  The  pests  feed  on 
This  soaked  corn  and  do  not  disturb  the  planted  seed. 


CHAPTER  25 

DISEASES  OF  CORN 

/^ORN  is  freer  from  disease  damage  than  most  other  crops.  The  two 
important  groups  of  diseases  of  corn  are  corn  smut,  with  which  every 
corn  grower  is  familiar,  and  root  rot,  fusarium,  diplodia  and  similar 
diseases  to  which  so  much  attention  has  been  directed  in  Indiana  and 
Illinois.  Previous  to  1913,  much  of  the  damage  caused  by  this  latter 
group  of  diseases  was  attributed  to  the  corn  root-worm,  the  corn  root- 
louse,  or  to  drouth.  These  diseases  are  not  w^ell  understood.  There  are 
possibly  ten  different  bacterial  or  fungus  organisms  which  play  some 
part  in  root  rotting,  stalk  stunting,  leaf  rolling,  joint  discoloration  or 
leaf  reddening  in  the  corn  field. 

Corn  Smut 

All  corn  growers  are  familiar  wath  the  black  balls  of  corn  smut 
which  are  found  in  every  corn  field.  It  is  a  typical  fungus  with  the 
mycelium  growing  inside  the  stalk  or  leaf  of  the  corn  plant.  Exter- 
nally, smut  first  appears  as  a  rather  lustrous,  lead-colored  bump,  but 


MAP  NO.  IX 


E.-Tiinated  percentage  of  corn  crop  destroyed  by  smut.  Solid,  over  .5  per  cent. 
Diagona)  lines,  2.6  1o  5  per  cent.  Squares,  1.1  to  2. .5  per  cent.  All  others 
under  1.1  per  cent. 


136 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 


Corn  smut. 


of  Iowa  Station.) 


this  bump  swells  and  darkens  until  it  bursts  and  lets  loose  the  black 
smut  spores,  which  are  in  effect  the  seeds  which  carry  over  the  disease 
in  the  soil  for  another  year.  In  the  average  field,  smut  causes  the  loss 
of  one-half  to  one  bushel  an  acre,  but  in  many  fields  it  causes  the  loss 
of  two  or  three  bushels  an  acre.  Map  IX,  based  on  information  compiled 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  indicates  that  smut  is 
a  much  more  serious  matter  on  the  extreme  southwestern  edge  of  the 
Corn  Belt  than  it  is  in  the  central  part.  Possibly  extreme  drouth  and 
heat  are  favorable  to  the  development  of  corn  smut. 

No  one  has  discovered  any  effective  way  of  preventing  corn  smut. 
Rotation  helps  some.  After  corn  has  been  grown  on  the  same  field  for 
more  than  two  years,  the  infection  seems  to  get  worse.  Theoretically, 
it  should  help  to  go  over  the  field  several  times  in  July  and  August  and 
pick  off  the  smut  balls  before  they  burst,  but  this  is  absolutely  im- 
practical. Treating  the  seed  with  formaldehyde,  in  the  same  way  as 
small  grain  is  treated  for  smut,  does  not  reduce  the  percentage  of  smut. 
The  one  practical  method  of  attack  is  to  breed  for  strains  of  corn  which 
are  smut-resistant.  It  has  been  definitely  proved  that  some  strains 
of  corn  are  much  more  smut-resistant  than  others.  It  would  seem  to  be 
Avorth  while  to  avoid  picking  seed  ears  from  stalks  which  show  the 
slightest  signs  of  smut  infection.  The  constructive  corn  breeders  of 
the  future  Avill  do  some  of  their  best  work  in  developing  high  yieUling 
strains  of  corn  which  are  much  more  resistant  to  smut  than  any  which 
we  now  have. 


DISEASES  OF  CORN  137 

Corn  smut  is  not  poisonous.  It  has  been  fed  in  large  quantities 
to  live  stock  without  bad  effects.  In  fact,  an  eastern  experiment  sta- 
tion states  that  it  makes  an  excellent  substitute  for  mushrooms,  for 
human  consumption,  if  <i'athered  l)efore  reaching'  the  Inirsting  stage. 

Diplodia 

Probably  the  most  clear-cut  and  outstanding  of  the  root-rot  group 
of  diseases  of  corn  is  diplodia,  which  infects  the  entire  plant  but  mani- 
fests itself  most  noticeably  in  the  form  of  moldy  ears — ears  which  are 
moldy  altogether  apart  from  any  mold  following  damage  by  the  corn 
ear-worm.  White  streaks  of  mold  found  between  the  kernel  tips  are 
almost  certain  signs  of  diplodia.  In  bad  cases,  the  entire  ear  will  be 
a  mass  of  white  mold.  ]\Iany  apparently  good  seed  ears  are  slightly 
infected  with  diplodia,  and  when  planted  produce  a  very  high  percent- 
age of  stunted  and  barren  stalks.  One  of  the  most  important  things 
to  look  out  for  when  shelling  the  seed  ears  by  hand  is  to  throw  out  any 
which  show  the  slightest  trace  of  mold  at  the  kernel  tips.  Diplodia 
is  doubtless  carried  over  from  one  year  to  the  next  in  the  soil  as  well 
as  in  the  seed  corn,  but  there  is  apparently  nothing  that  we  can  do  about 
the  presence  of  the  disease  in  the  soil.  Diplodia  does  not  do  so  very 
much  damage  if  strong,  mold-free  seed  is  planted,  provided  the  late 
summer  and  early  fall  is  not  unusually  moist  and  warm.  In  1922  and 
1923  experiments  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
central  Illinois  indicated  that  it  is  possible  to  treat  seed  corn  so  as  to 
free  the  seed  from  diplodia  infection.  No  information  is  available  as 
yet  as  to  the  substance  used. 

Fusarium 

There  are  many  species  of  fusarium  attacking  a  great  variety  of 
plants.  Ordinarily,  they  are  not  so  very  serious.  One  of  them,  when 
weather  conditions  are  just  right,  causes  scab  in  wheat.  It  has  been 
definitely  demonstrated  that  the  same  fusarium  (Gibberella  S.  is  a 
type  of  fusarium)  may,  when  corn  is  following  wheat,  cause  very  serious 
damage  to  corn.  There  are  several  other  fusariums  infecting  corn,  and 
most  of  them  are  carried  over  winter  not  only  on  the  corn  stalks  but  also 
inside  the  kernels  of  corn.  No  method  of  treating  the  corn  with  for- 
maldehyde will  free  the  kernels  from  infection.  Apparently  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  pick  out  the  ears  that  are  infected  and  avoid  planting 
them.  Illinois  experiments  indicate  that  seed  which  is  infected  with 
fusarium  will  yield  fully  20  per  cent  less  than  disease-free  seed.  Iowa 
experiments  indicate  that  under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  weather 
there  is  very  little  difference  in  yielding  power  between  seed  infected 
with  fusarium  and  seed  not  infected.  There  is  no  question  about  the 
low  yielding  power  of  seed  infected  with  diplodia,  but  there  do  seem  to 
be  some  conditions  under  which  fusarium  is  not  so  verv  serious. 


138  <"()J{X  AXl)  C'OKN-GKOWIXG 

Controlling  the  Root-Rot  Diseases 

From  the  standpoint  of  practical  action  against  the  root-rots,  the 
first  thing  is  to  select  normally  matured  ears  from  normal  stalks  in  the 
field.  Go  over  the  seed  ears  and  throw  out  all  having  kernels  with 
starchy  backs.  Throw  out  the  ears  that  are  light  for  their  size  and 
which  show  any  sign  of  disease  at  the  shank.  Shredded,  dull-colored 
shank  attachments  indicate  disease.  The  next  step  is  conducting  the 
germination  test  with  unusual  care  and  with  an  eye  open  for  signs  of 
infection.  However,  the  Ohio  station  states  that  although  experts  can 
use  the  germination  test  to  select  disease  free  ears,  the  average  person 
can  not  make  practical  use  of  the  germination  test  from  the  disease  stand- 
point. There  are  two  methods  of  testing  for  diseased  ears.  One  is  a 
table  germinator  with  a  limestone-sawdust  base.  The  other  is  a  modified 
rag  doll. 

Modified  Rag  Doll 

The  following  directions  are  designed  to  help  in  constructing  the 
special  form  of  rag  doll  to  pick  out  infected  ears : 

1.  Lay  a  12x60-inch  strip  of  firm,  water-finish,  fiber  (butcher's  paper i 
on  a  table. 

2.  On  top  of  the  paper  lay  a  12x54-inc.h  moistened  strip  of  muslin. 

3.  Place  eight  representative  kernels  from  each  ear  in  a  row,  with  gt-rm 
sides  down  and  tips  pointing  in  the  same  direction. 

4.  Roll  the  paper  and  cloth  into  a  doll,  as  described  in  the  making  of 
the  rag  doll. 

5.  Store  the  dolls  in  a  warm,  moist  place  for  seven  days. 

6.  The  stored  dolls  should  not  come  in  contact  with  one  another. 

7.  A  box  with  wire  cross  rods  three  inches  apart  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
box  is  suitable  for  storage. 

8.  Keep  the  dolls  moist  and  see  that  the  container  allows  drainage. 

9.  Unroll  the  dolls  and  read  the  test. 

10.  The  percentage  of  germination  of  each  ear  is  determined  in  the  usual 
way,  and  the  seedlings  are  then  examined  for  molding  or  rotting.  The  seed- 
lings which  have  discolored  or  rotten  stems  or  roots,  or  which  come  from  rot- 
ten kernels  indicate  ears  infected  with  disease. 

Disease  Resistant  Corn 

It  will  not  be  until  WM)  or  later  that  we  have  any  very  compk'tc 
knowledge  concerning  this  group  of  diseases.  It  is  probable  that  eventu- 
ally it  will  be  found  that  the  best  way  of  meeting  these  diseases  will  be 
by  the  breeding  of  disease  resistant  strains.  Preliminary  work  indicates 
that  some  strains  are  much  more  resistant  than  others.  Here  again  is 
a  great  field  of  work  ()i)en  for  the  constructive  corn  breeder. 

Effect  of  Soil 

Hoffer,  working  in  Indiana,  and  Holbert,  working  in  Illinois,  have 
both  found  that  soil  conditions  have  much  to  do  with  these  diseases. 
AVhero  the  soil  is  acid  and  corn  is  grown  vear  after  vear.  it  seems  that 


DISEASES  OF  CORN  1:59 

these  diseases  are  likely  to  groAV  in  virulence.  Presumably  this  explains 
why  these  diseases  are  regarded  as  so  much  more  serious  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Corn  Belt  than  in  Iowa. 

Conclusion 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  the  practical  way  of  handling 
these  diseases  is  to  apply  lime  to  acid  soils,  grow  clover  once  in  four 
years,  avoid  growing  corn  on  the  same  land  more  than  two  years  in  suc- 
cession, burn  the  corn  stalks,  avoid  following  scabby  wheat  with  corn, 
and  plant  seed  corn  which  the  germinator  indicates  to  be  disease-free. 

Other  Diseases 

Corn  rust  is  a  common  disease  of  the  plant.  This  disease  affects 
mainly  the  leaves  and  tassel  of  the  plant,  and  interferes  Avith  their  func- 
tioning. However,  the  damage  is  not  great,  and  so  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  control  measures.  Other  diseases  of  corn  are  sheath  spot, 
wilt  and  damping-off. 


CHAPTER  26 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN 

/^ORN  is  a  Slimmer  annual  which  belongs  to  the  grass  family,     ^ueh 
other  common  farm  crops  as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye  and  sorghum 
also  belong  to  the  same  family.     Incorrectly,  flax  and  buckwheat  are 
often  called  grasses.     Botanists  classify  the  corn  plant  as  follows : 

Botanical  Division  Name  Characteristics 

Family Gramineae Fibrous  root  system  leaves  alter- 
nate, parallel  veins  in  leaves, 
split  leaf  sheath,  ligule,  stems 
cylindrical  with  solid  nodes. 

Tribe Tripsaceae  (maydeae)...  Male  and  female  flowers  in  sepa- 
rate places  on  the  same  plant. 

Genus Zea Grain  borne  on  a  lateral  cob. 


Relatives  of  corn.  To  left,  Job's  tears,  showing  female  flower  below  and  male 
flowers  above.  To  right,  gama  grass,  with  female  tassels  in  lower  part  of 
tassel  and  male  flowers  in  upper  part.  (a)  female  flower  (enlarged); 
(b)   male  flower   (enlarged). 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN 


141 


Teosinte-corn  hybrid  plant  produced  by  a  single  kernel.  Note  large  numbers 
of  suckers  and  branches  which  bear  tassels.  A  plant  of  this  sort  will  often 
produce  forty  ears,  but  each  ear  carries  only  ten  or  fifteen  kernels. 


142  COKX  AND  COKX-GKOWING 

Besides  zea  (corn),  there  are  three  other  common  <>enera  helono-int; 
to  tlio  tribe  Trij^saeeae — Euchlaena  (teosinte),  Tripsacnm  (jiama  jirass). 
and  Coix  (Job's  tears).  Teosinte  and  gama  grass  are  described  in 
Chapter  1.  Teosinte  will  cross  with  corn,  but  as  yet  there  have  been 
no  successful  crosses  of  either  corn  or  teosinte  with  gama  grass  or  Job's 
tears.  Job's  tears  is  an  ornamental  garden  plant.  Large  growing,  soft 
shelled  forms  of  Job's  tears  are  cultivated  as  a  grain  crop  in  the  Pliilip- 
pines  and  other  tropical  eastern  countries. 

There  are  several  other  genera  belonging  to  Tribe  Tripsaceae,  Avhich 
are  found  in  India,  but  which  seem  as  yet  to  be  of  no  practical  impor- 
tance. From  a  strictly  botanical  point  of  view,  there  are  no  clear-cut 
species  of  the  Genus  Zea.  Before  the  discovery  of  Mendel's  law  and  its 
application  to  the  genetics  of  corn,  many  distinct  species  of  zea  were 
recognized.  Today  most  of  these  so-called  species  are  looked  on  merely 
as  interesting  freaks  which  behave  as  Mendelian  dominants  or  ^Mendelian 
recessives. 

On  the  basis  of  kernel  texture  there  are  four  common  groups  of 
zea    (corn")  : 


1. 

Dent. 

2. 

Flint. 

3. 

Sweet. 

4. 

Soft. 

Dent  Corn 

Dent  corn  is  characterized  by  a  depression  in  the  crown  of  the 
kernel.  This  denting  is  caused  by  the  unequal  shrinkage  of  the  hard 
starch  found  on  the  sides  of  the  kernel  and  the  soft  starch  which  com- 
poses the  crown.  The  character  of  the  indentation  varies  all  the  way 
from  a  shallow  dimple  through  a  crumpled  crease  to  a  thin  beak  or 
hook.  This  last  kind  of  indentation  is  characteristic  of  those  dents 
with  the  highest  percentage  of  soft  starch  toward  the  crown.  Dent 
corn  varies  in  color  and  in  size  and  shape  of  ear.  There  is  also  a  great 
variation  in  size  and  shape  of  kernel.  Some  ears  of  dent  corn  bear 
kernels  of  the  extreme  shoe-peg  type,  very  narrow  and  deep.  Other 
ears  of  dent  corn  bear  kernels  of  the  square  type,  very  wide  and  shallow. 
In  between  are  all  gradations  of  kernel  type. 

The  great  diversity  of  type  sketched  in  the  foregoing,  together  Avitli 
historical  and  genetic  evidence,  indicates  that  dent  corn  is  not  in  any 
sense  a  species,  but  a  conglomerate  mixture.  This  mixture  seems  to 
have  resulted  from  both  accidental  and  intentional  crossing  of  the  large 
flint  type  (recognized  as  a  distinct  sort  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century)  with  the  gourd-seed,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  late- 
maturing,  rank-stalked  type,  bearing  an  ear  with  22  to  36  rows  of  rough, 
deep,  very  soft,  shoe-peg  kernels.  The  ears  were  rather  short,  small- 
cobbed  and  very  thick   because   of   the   great   depth   of   grain.     Some 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN 


14:J 


' 

i 

1 

H 

1 

i 

^!*  ■ 

1 

1 

r 

^ 

a 

11 

1 

1 

1  1 

i 

i 

1.    1 

Jr 

■bIr 

w 

IF 

^W 

Teosinte  ear  spikes  on  left.  Three  ears  on  right  are  types  which  result  when 
teosinte  is  crossed  with  corn  and  the  corn  types  are  selected  out.  (Courtesy 
oi"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


people  have  looked  on  the  gourd-seed  as  being  synonymous  with  dent 
corn.  That  this  is  not  true  is  indicated  by  the  testimony  of  farmers  who 
grew  both  dents  and  gourd-seeds.  For  instance,  one  farmer  who  grew 
both  Avrote : 

"Gourd-seed  is  a  large,  rough,  soft  corn.  It  is  later  and  has  larger 
stalks  and  ears  than  the  other  varieties.  It  lacks  the  flintiness  and 
weight  for  the  same  bulk  as  the  others  have.  In  comparison  with  dent 
of  my  own  raising,  in  feeding  hogs,  1  thought  it  took  about  one  and  one- 
fourth  bushels  to  go  as  far  as  one  of  my  own  corn.  But  cattle  in  par- 
ticular will  eat  it  more  readily,  as  it  is  not  so  hard  to  masticate." 

Mr.  John  Lorain,  in  his  "Practice  of  Husbandry,"  published  in 
1825,  refers  to  the  common  practice  of  mixing  gourd-seed  with  other 
varieties : 

"So  prevalent  are  mixtures,  that  1  have  never  examined  a  field  of 
corn  (where  great  care  had  not  been  taken  to  select  the  seed),  which 
did  not  exhibit  evident  traces  of  all  the  corn  in  general  use  for  field 


144  CORX  AND  CORX-G ROWING 

planting,  with  many  others  that  are  not  used  for  this  purpose.     None 
can  be  longer  nor  more  readily  traced  than  the  gourd-seed. 

"The  quantity  of  the  gourd-seed  mixed  with  the  flinty  yellow  corns, 
may  be  determined,  so  as  to  answer  the  farmer's  purpose.  When  the 
l)roportion  of  the  former  greatly  predominates,  the  grains  are  pale,  very 
long  and  narrow,  and  the  outside  ends  of  them  are  so  flat  (beaked)  that 
but  little  of  the  indenture  is  seen.  As  the  portion  of  the  gourd-seed 
decreases  in  the  mixture,  the  grains  shorten,  become  wider,  and  their 
outside  ends  grow  thicker.  The  indentures  also  become  larger  and 
rounder,  until  the  harder  corns  get  the  ascendancy.  After  this,  the 
outside  ends  of  the  grain  become  thicker  and  more  circular.  They  also 
grow  wider,  and  the  fluted  appearance  between  the  rows  increases.  The 
indentures  also  decrease  in  size  until  they  disappear,  and  the  yellow, 
flinty  variety  is  formed.  But,  as  I  believe,  not  so  fully  but  that  the 
latent  remains  will  forever  subject  it  to  more  or  less  change.  It  is 
more  difficult  to  determine  the  quantity  of  big  and  little  yellow  flints, 
which  may  happen  to  be  mixed  with  the  gourd-seed,  and  at  the  same 
time  with  each  other.  The  soft,  open  texture  of  the  gourd-seed  renders 
it  unfit  for  exportation,  unless  it  be  kiln-dried." 

Lorain,  previous  to  1825,  stated  that  true  gourd-seed  is  white : 

"It  is  invariably  white,  unless  it  has  been  mixed  with  the  yellow 
flinty  corns.  Then  it  is  called  the  yellow  gourd-seed,  and  too  many 
farmers  consider  it  and  most  other  mixtures  original  corns.  I  have 
often  heard  of  original  yellow  gourd-seed  corn,  but  after  taking  much 
trouble  to  investigate  the  fact,  could  never  find  anything  more  than 
a  mixture.  If  there  be  an  original  yellow  gourd-seed  corn,  it  has  eluded 
my  very  attentive  inquiry  from  the  Atlantic  to  our  most  remote  western 
settlements. ' ' 

Lorain  also  says  that  much  of  the  corn  which  passes  for  white  gourd- 
seed  has  been  mixed  with  white  flint. 

Peter  A.  Brown,  LL.  D.,  writing  a  paper  on  corn  for  the  Chester 
county,  Pennsylvania.  Cabinet  of  Natural  Science,  in  1837,  refers  to 
true  gourdseed  as  carrj-ing  twenty-four  or  more  rows  of  kernels.  He 
looked  on  ears  carrying  fourteen  to  twenty-two  rows  of  kernels  as  mix- 
tures of  flint  and  gourdseed.  No  reference  is  made  to  dent  corn,  although 
he  lists  thirty-five  different  types,  seven  of  which  he  states  were  origin- 
ated by  mixing  gourdseed  and  flint.  He  mentions  the  King  Philip  as 
mixing  especially  well  with  gourdseed. 

According  to  the  twelfth  Smithsonian  Institute  report,  the  Mound- 
builders  of  Arkansas  grew  a  type  of  corn  which  is  "judged  to  be  the 
variety  known  in  the  South  as  the  gourd-seed  corn. ' ' 

Beverly,  in  his  history  of  Virginia,  written  in  1705,  states  that  the 
Indians  grew  a  late  flint  and  a  late  dent.  "The  other  has  a  larger  grain 
and  looks  shriveled,  Avith  a  dent  on  the  back  of  the  grain  as  if  it  had 
never  come  to  perfection ;  and  this  they  call  She  corn.     This  is  esteemed 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN 


14; 


by  the  planters,  as  the  best  for  increase,  and  is  universally  chosen  by 
them  for  planting;  yet  I  can't  see  but  this  also  produces  the  flint  corn, 
accidentally  among-  the  other.''  Evidently  there  was  some  crossing  of 
flint  and  gourdseed  to  produce  dent  corn  long  before  the  time  of  John 
Lorain. 

The  genetic  evidence  in  favor  of  the  hypothesis  that  the  typical  dent 
varieties  grown  in  the  Corn  Belt  are  a  cross  of  the  flint  and  gourd-seed 
corns,  consists  in  the  ease  with  which  inbreeding  isolates  out  types 
which  are  practically  pure  flints.  H.  A.  Wallace  has  isolated  out  of 
the  Clyde  Black  strain  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent  a  flinty  type  similar  in 
appearance  to  the  Dutton  flint,  popular  in  New  York  seventy  years 
ago.  Gourd-seed  types,  because  of  their  lateness  and  susceptibility  to 
disease,  have  thus  far  been  difficult  to  isolate  in  their  pure  inbred  form. 

Of  course,  it  is  recognized  that  there  may  have  been  many  other 
sorts  mixed  in  forming  the  modern  dent  corn,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
chief  characteristics  of  dent  corn  as  it  is  known  in  the  Corn  Belt  today 
are  due  to  the  large  flint  and  the  gourd-seed. 

Modern  dents  seem  to  contain  varying  percentages  of  flint  and 
gourd-seed  blood.  Johnson  County  White  appears  to  contain  a  high 
percentage  of  gourd-seed,  whereas  Northwestern  Dent  is  unquestion- 
ably more  than  one-half  flint. 

The  hybrid  heredity  of  dent  corn  and  the  consequent  variability  and 
possibility  of  securing  unproductive  as  well  as  productive  mixtures, 
indicates  that  intelligent  selection  is  probably  more  necessary  with  dent 
corn  than  with  purer  types. 

Dent  corn  typically  contains  about  10  per  cent  protein,  68  per  cent 
nitrogen  free  extract,  and  4.8  per  cent  fat.  It  is  one  to  two  per  cent 
poorer  in  protein  and  one  to  two  per  cent  richer  in  nitrogen  free  extract 
than  flint  corn  of  the  same  moisture  content.  Shelled  dent  corn  typi- 
cally weighs  55  or  56  pounds  per  bushel,  whereas  shelled  corn  of  the 
small  seeded  flints  may  weigh  60  pounds  per  bushel,  and  the  flour  corns 
may  Aveigh  only  50  pounds. 


p-L-inT  -  i^i_ouF=\-  DEin-r 


hORmr      iTARcn        Gcrrn 
Illustrating  difference  of  kernel  texture  in  different  types. 


14(i  CORN  AND  (M^RX-GROWIXG 

Flint  Corn 

Flint  corn  differs  from  dent  corn  in  that  it  contains  practically  no 
soft  starch;  therefore,  no  indentation  is  formed.  Most  flints  sucker 
jirofusely,  and  nsnally  bear  more  than  one  ear  ])er  plant.  Flint  corns 
are  good  yielders  and  furnish  excellent  fodder.  The  corn  meal  made 
from  flint  corn  is  of  superior  quality.  ]\Iost  yellow  flints  are  a  much 
deeper  yellow  than  yellow  dents. 

The  four  common  classes  of  flint  varieties  are  (1)  early  flints,  (2) 
medium  flints,  (3)  tropical  flints,  and  (4)  popcorn. 

The  early  flints  are  the  earliest  varieties  of  corn  grown  in  the  United 
States.  They  grow  only  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  bear  the  ear  within 
a  few  inches  of  the  ground.  The  color  is  variable,  and  the  ear  six  to 
seven  inches  long  and  usually  carrying  eight  rows.  This  type  is  adapted 
to  short  seasons,  high  altitudes  and  dry  conditions.  Representative 
varieties  are  Gehu,  Dakota  White  and  Early  Indian.  Most  of  these 
early  flints  were  developed  by  the  Indians  of  the  northwest  with  but 
very  little  improvement  by  the  white  man  during  the  past  thirty  years. 

The  medium  flint  class  consists  principally  of  varieties  that  orig- 
inated in  New  England  and  the  Middle-Atlantic  states.  They  grow  from 
five  to  seven  feet  in  height,  but  are  finer  stalked  than  the  dent  varieties. 
They  vary  greatly  in  size  and  color  of  ear  and  in  length  of  maturity. 
Most  of  them  are  eight-rowed.  Because  of  their  fine  stalks  and  numer- 
ous leaves,  they  make  an  excellent  quality  of  fodder  and  silage.  Repre- 
sentative varieties  are  Longfellow,  King  Philip.  Smut  Nose  and  Mercer. 
Both  the  early  and  medium  flints  sucker  considerably  and  carry  many 
streamers  on  their  husks. 

The  tropical  flints  are  not  well  knoAvn  in  the  United  States.  Pre- 
sumably, Columbus  found  tropical  flints  growing  on  the  West  India 
islands  and  introduced  them  to  Europe.  Many  of  the  common  flints 
of  Italy,  the  Balkan  States  and  Argentina  seem  to  be  tropical  flints. 
The  tropical  flints,  as  modified  by  selection  in  these  countries,  require 
about  120  days  to  mature.  Many  of  them  do  not  sucker.  The  kernels 
usually  are  narrower  and  deeper  than  with  the  medium  class  of  flints. 
Oftentimes  the  ears  carry  twelve  rows. 

Popcorn  differs  from  the  other  flints  in  that  it  contains  an  even 
higher  percentage  of  hard  starch,  the  kernels  are  usually  much  smaller, 
and  the  hull  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  kernel  is  tougher  and  thicker. 
Because  of  these  characteristics,  the  kernel,  when  heated,  has  the  ability 
to  pop  better  than  the  other  flints.     Popcorn  is  discussed  in  Chapter  27. 

While  there  is  great  variability  among  all  four  classes  of  flints.,  just 
described,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  they  arc  more  luiiforni  in  tlicii- 
characteristics  than  the  dents. 

Sweet  Corn 

SAveet  corns  may  be  of  the  dent  type  (Evergreen)  or  the  flint  ty])e 
(Golden  Bantam),  and  also  of  soft  corn  types.  Sweet  corn,  therefore 
has  the  possibility  of  being  one  of  the  most  variable  of  all  corn  tyjies. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN  147 

Tlie  only  distinguisliing  characteristics  of  sweet  corn  are  wrinkled  ker- 
nels and  translucent,  hard  starch,  which  does  not  mature  normally,  ap- 
parently remaining-  in  the  sugar  stage  much  longer  than  is  the  case  witli 
ordinary  corn. 

Soft  Corn 

Soft  varieties  of  corn  are  grown  only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  They 
are  also  known  as  "squaw"  corn  and  "flour"  corn.  Soft  corn  is  usu- 
ally similar  to  flint  corn  in  plant  and  ear  characters,  but  differs  in 
that  the  kernels  are  composed  largely  of  soft  starch  Instead  of  hard 
starch.  Like  flint  corn,  it  has  no  dent  (sometimes  there  is  a  slight  dent 
in  Hopi  Indian  corn).  The  horny  starch  in  soft  corn  is  such  a  very  thin 
shell  at  the  sides  of  the  kernel  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  strain  of  this 
corn  to  be  deep  yellow  in  color  (the  yellow  color  of  corn  is  found  only 
in  the  horny  starch). 

Strains,  of  soft  corn  are  Brazilian  Flour,  Hopi  and  the  Blue  Flour 
of  the  Nebraska  and  Dakota  Indians.  Evidence  indicating  the  purity  of 
flour  corn  as  an  ancient  type  is  the  inbreeding  Avork  done  by  Kemptoji 
and  Collins  with  the  Pawnee  Blue  Flour.  The  Pawnee  Blue  Flour  with- 
stands inbreeding  with  less  loss  of  vigor  than  any  other  strain  of  corn 
which  has  thus  far  been  put  through  this  severe  test. 

Other  Types 

Kernel  texture,  while  convenient  for  practical  purposes,  is  only  one 
basis  of  classifying  corn.  Geneticists  have  studied  hundreds  of  distinct 
types  which  the  botanists  of  a  generation  ago  would  have  dignified  with 
Latin  names  as  distinct  species.     Some  of  these  types  are : 

1.     Pod  corn — each  kernel  enclosed  by  a  husk  as  well  as  the  entire  ear. 

'1.  Brachytic  corn — short  jointed  corn  which  is  normal  in  every  respect 
except  that  the  joints  are  only  half  the  normal  length.  There  are  the  usual 
number  of  leaves. 

3.  Purple-leaved  corn — the  leaves  and  husks  are  a  deep,  beautiful  purple. 

4.  Japonica.  or  striped-leaved  corn. 

.5.  Hairy  corn — hairs  on  the  stems  and  leaves. 

6.  Ramosa  corn — ear  a  round  cluster  of  kernels  withort  a  true  cob.  (Dis- 
covered at  the  Illinois  station.) 

7.  Corn  bearing  ears  with  lateral  branches  at  the  base  of  the  cob. 

5.  Tassel  ear  corn — ears  borne  on  tassels. 

9.  Waxy  corn — logically,  this  should  be  included  as  a  fifth  member  ot 
the  classification  on  kernel  texture.  The  carbohydrates  of  the  kernel  are 
stored  in  the  form  of  dextrin,  instead  of  as  starch.  It  is  not  shriveled,  however, 
like  sweet  corn. 

10.  Starchy  sweet  corn — like  waxy  corn,  this  logically  should  be  included 
with  the  classification  on  basis  of  kernel  texture.  The  upper  part  of  the  ker- 
nels is  transparent  and  horny  like  sweet  corn,  and  the  lower  part  is  starchy. 
This  corn  is  grown  by  certain  Mexican  and  Peruvian  Indians.  It  can  be  pro 
duced  by  crossing  true  sweet  corns  with  dent  corn  and  then  selecting  out  in 
later  generations  the  sweet  corn  recessives  which  carry  white  starch  at  the 
base  of  the  kernel.     It  is  not  grown  commercially. 


148  VOVx^  AND  CORX-GROAVIXG 

There  are  many  more  rather  freakish  types  of  this  sort  which  have 
as  legitimate  claim,  from  a  botanical  point  of  view,  to  be  known  as 
species  of  zea  as  do  dent  corn,  flint  corn,  sweet  corn  and  soft  corn.  From 
a  practical  point  of  view,  however,  this  classification  into  four  groups, 
on  the  basis  of  kernel  texture,  seems  best. 


^4^ 
^t"^ 


CHAPTER  27 
POPCORN 


npHE  growing  of  popcorn  on  a  field  scale  in  the  Corn  Belt  is  a  spe- 
cialized and  localized  industry.  Profit  in  popcorn  growing  depends 
largely  on  the  grower's  ability  to  produce  popcorn  of  good  quality,  store 
his  crop  properly,  and  market  it  advantageously.  In  comparison  to 
field  corn,  popcorn  is  more  bother  to  raise,  harder  to  get  a  stand,  more 
difficult  to  keep  clean,  and  more  bother  to  gather  and  deliver.  In  addi- 
tion, marketing  difficulties  and  fluctuating  prices  make  it  an  unprofit- 
able crop  for  promiscuous  planting. 

Why  It  Pops 

Popping  is  the  complete  eversion  of  the  kernel  as  a  result  of  the 
explosion  of  the  contained  moisture  when  heat  is  applied.  A  12  per 
cent  moisture  content  is  considered  best  for  popping.  This  means  that 
popcorn  usually  pops  best  after  about  six  months  of  storage.  Ordinary 
rice  popcorn  increases  in  volume  from  twelve  to  twenty  times  on  pop- 
ping. Certain  high  popping  strains  and  the  Jap  Rice  may  increase 
in  volume  by  as  much  as  thirty  times. 

Types  of  Popcorn 

The  three  common  types  of  popcorn  are  White  Rice,  Jap  and  Pearl. 
In  the  great  popcorn  district  in  Sac  and  Ida  counties,  Iowa,  the  White 
Rice  and  Jap  are  grown  almost  exclusively. 

White  Rice — -The  kernels  are  pointed  at  the  crown.  Ears  are  seven 
or  eight  inches  long  and  carry  twelve  or  fourteen  rows  of  kernels.     The 


m. 

^''W^^^|t^jr,wM»'«rBF«-^-^^ ' 

1    1 

1      1 

1     1 

» 

1 

3 

Z 

1  1   ! 

2 

1           I 

1 

t 

7 

Typical  ear  of  White  Rice  popcorn,  which  is  grown  more  commercially  than 
all  other  kinds  put  together. 


150  COKX  AND  COKX-GKOAVIXG 

stalks  are  usually  six  or  seven  feet  tall.  It  yields  about  70  i)er  cent  as 
many  pounds  of  ear  corn  per  acre  as  ordinary  dent  corn  grown  on  the 
same  land.  It  is  the  outstanding-  popcorn  of  America,  but  the  Jap  is 
gradually  replacing  it  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Jap — The  kernels  are  pointed  like  the  White  Rice,  but  are  much 
narrower.  The  ears  are  only  two  or  three  inches  long.  They  carry 
typically  from  twent3'-four  to  thirty-six  rows  of  grain.  Kernels  are 
deep  but  exceedingly  narrow.  The  stalks  are  about  five  feet  tall.  It 
will  yield  about  70  per  cent  as  many  pounds  per  acre  as  the  White  Rice 
and  about  half  as  many  pounds  as  ordinary  dent  corn  on  the  same  land. 
Because  of  the  small  ears,  it  is  difficult  to  husk.  When  buskers  of  dent 
corn  are  paid  four  or  five  cents  a  bushel  (eighty  pounds  of  ear  corn),  it 
is  customary  to  pay  buskers  of  White  Rice  about  15  cents  per  hundred 
pounds  of  ear  corn  and  buskers  of  Jap  about  23  cents  per  hundred 
pounds  of  snapped  corn. 

Jap  corn  suckers  less  than  most  strains  of  White  Rice,  and  the  main 
tassel  spike  is  shorter  and  thicker.  ]Many  of  the  stalks  are  somewhat 
hairy.     Two  or  three  ears  per  stalk  are  common. 

Jap  produces  a  more  tender  product  on  po})ping  than  the  White 
Rice,  and  is  much  in  demand  on  that  account.  Some  call  it  Jap  Hull- 
less  because  it  is  so  tender.  It  also  increases  more  in  bulk  on  i)opping 
than  is  the  case  with  ordinary  White  Rice. 

The  market  has  normally  paid  from  40  to  100  per  cent  more  for 
Jap  popcorn  per  hundred  pounds  of  snapped  corn  than  for  White  Rice 
per  hundred  pounds  of  ear  corn. 

Pearl  Popcorn — The  kernels  are  rounded  and  shallow,  and  look 
like  small  flint  kernels.  The  ears  are  about  eight  inches  long  and  carry 
eight  to  fourteen  rows.  The  eating  quality  of  Pearl  popcorn  is  low  as 
compared  with  the  Jap.  The  large  popped  kernels  of  the  eight-rowed 
variety  are  strung  on  strings  and  used  as  ornaments  at  Christmas-time. 
The  three  common  Pearl  varieties  are  White  Pearl,  Golden  Queen  and 
Eight-rowed. 

Cultural  Methods 

Popcorn  is  grown  in  almost  exactly  the  same  way  as  ordinary  dent 
corn.  It  should  not  be  planted  after  June  1,  because  popcorn  which  is 
the  least  bit  immature  is  worthless.  An  ordinary  corn  planter  with 
special  plates  is  used  to  plant  popcorn.  It  may  be  either  checked  or 
drilled.  However,  drilling  is  to  be  discouraged  unless  the  land  is  ex- 
ceptionally free  from  weeds.  Five  to  six  kernels  are  dropped  in  a  hill, 
and  often  three  feet  four  inch  wire  is  used,  so  that  the  cross  rows  are 
forty  inclies  apart  and  the  planter  rows  forty-two  inches.  Five  to  six 
pounds  per  acre  gives  a  good  .stand. 

Cultivation  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  dent  corn.  How- 
ever, the  smaller  plant  makes  the  first  cultivation  a  little  more  difficult. 
Three  to  four  cultivations  are  the  rule,  and  it  is  "laid  by''  at  the  same 
time  or  a  little  later  than  dent  corn. 


POPC'ORX  l')l 

Popcorn  ripens  somewhat  earlier  than  fiekl  corn,  hnsking  often  be- 
ginning- the  last  of  September  or  the  first  of  October.  It  should  be  fnlly 
mature  before  frost  comes,  as  freezing-  injures  the  popping  qnality  and 
greatl}^  reduces  its  value  on  the  market.  The  best  quality  of  popcorn 
is  obtained  by  allowing  the  ears  to  ripen  fully  on  the  standing  stalks. 
Husking  from  the  shock,  while  practiced  in  a  limited  way,  is  very  poor 
practice.  Formerly,  popcorn  was  harvested  exclusively  by  hand,  but  in 
late  years  the  husking  machine  has  come  into  favor  as  a  means  of  getting 
the  corn  into  the  crib.  Both  methods  have  their  good  points.  Three  me{n 
operating  a  machine  will  crib  as  much  corn  as  five  men  by  hand.  The 
husking  machine  is  discussed  in  (-hapter  13.  Forty  inches  of  White 
Rice  per  day  is  a  good  day's  picking  for  a  man.  It  seems  to  take  at 
least  twice  as  much  labor  to  husk  White  Rice  popcorn  as  it  does  dent  corn. 

Marketing 

From  60  to  75  per  cent  of  the  entire  crop  is  marketed  before  the 
first  of  January.  Some  is  hauled  directly  from  the  field  to  the  market. 
The  crop  is  often  contracted  for  before  the  seed  is  put  in  the  ground. 
The  contract  price  fluctuates  greatly,  but  is  usually  around  $2  per 
hundred  pounds  of  White  Rice  ear  corn  when  prospects  are  for  dent  corn 
selling  for  50  cents  per  bushel  of  ear  corn  (eighty  pounds)  in  December. 
]\Iost  of  the  popcorn  cribbed  on  the  farm  is  marketed  shelled.  Shrinkage, 
according  to  one  authority,  is  about  30  per  cent.  Rat-proof  cribs  are 
often  used,  though  rodents  do  less  damage  to  popcorn  than  to  dent  corn. 

Cribbing  and  Shelling 

The  Dickinson,  Cracker-jack  and  ShotAvell  peoi)le,  who  buy  the  bulk 
of  the  commercial  popcorn,  have  built  large  plants  for  the  storage  of 
popcorn.  One  plant  in  Sac  county,  Iowa,  consists  of  four  cribs  with  a 
capacity  of  1,250,000  pounds  each  of  ear  corn,  or  a  combined  capacity 
of  five  million  pounds;  an  elevator  with  a  350,000-pound  shelled  corn 
capacity,  and  five  tanks  with  a  capacity  of  two  million  pounds  of  shelled 
corn. 


Popcorn  cribs  along  railroad  tracks,  owned  by  one  of  the  big  commercial  con- 
cerns in  Sac  county,  Iowa. 


152  CORX  AND  CORN  GROWING 

Early  in  the  summer,  shellino-  starts  in  the  big  cribs  and  is  kept  up 
intermittently  all  summer,  so  that  the  cribs  will  be  empty  in  time  for 
the  new  crop.  The  sheller  is  built  in  as  part  of  the  plant,  and  endless 
belts  convey  the  corn  from  the  cribs  to  the  sheller. 

Amount  Grown 

Popcorn  is  grown  in  practically  every  state.  However,  the  main 
portion  of  the  market  supply  comes  from  Sac  and  Ida  counties,  in  Iowa, 
and  Valley  and  Greeley  counties,  in  Nebraska. 

Iowa  is  the  leading  popcorn  state.  Two  counties,  Ida  and  Sac,  nor- 
mally grow  over  10,000  acres  annually.  The  following  table  gives  pop- 
corn acreage  in  Ida  and  Sac  counties  for  different  years : 

1912  1919  1922 

Ida   county    5,412         11,411  2,996 

Sac  county  8,408         14,722  5,160 

As  to  whether  the  decline  in  acreage  indicated  by  the  1922  figures 
will  jirove  to  be  permanent  is  rather  doubtful. 

Uses  of  Popcorn 

Most  of  the  popcorn  is  used  as  a  confection.  "Cracker-jack," 
"Checkers"  and  similar  well-known  delicacies  are  coated  popcorn.  In 
handling  the  commercial  grades  of  popcorn,  the  wholesaler  must  figure 
on  a  waste  of  7  to  25  per  cent.  This  waste  is  made  up  of  kernels  that 
will  not  pop,  kernels  that  are  mixed  with  dent  corn  and  dust  or  broken 
pieces  of  cob  that  the  sheller  did  not  clean  cut.  Considerable  popcorn 
flour  is  used  commercially.  It  is  said  that  it  is  a  fine  light  flour  of 
unusually  high  quality. 


CHAPTER  28 

SWEET  CORN 

CWEET  corn  is  extensively  grown  for  canning-  purposes  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  Corn  Belt,  especially  in  Iowa  and  Illinois.  It  takes 
about  IjOOO  acres  of  sweet  corn  to  maintain  an  efficient  canning  factory. 
Sweet  corn  is  an  early  cash  crop,  that  is  usually  contracted  for  at  plant- 
ing- time ;  hence,  the  marketing  of  the  crop  is  not  a  problem.  Sweet  corn 
fits  in  Avell  before  winter  wheat  in  the  rotation,  making  for  some  sections 
a  better  combination  than  field  corn  and  oats.  The  stalks  left  in  the 
field  after  snapping  the  sweet  corn  are  a  valuable  feed,  worth  $8  or  $4 
an  acre.  In  general,  sw^eet  corn  is  a  profitable  crop  for  many  farmers 
located  within  four  miles  of  a  canning  factory. 

How  It  Differs  from  Field  Corn 

The  ordinary  dent,  flint  and  soft  corns  are  usually  referred  to  as 
field  corn,  although  some  of  these  types  are  occasionally  used  as  roast- 
ing ears.  Kernels  of  sweet  corn  are  horny,  wrinkled  and  translucent. 
The  high  sugar  content  of  the  kernel  gives  this  type  of  corn  its  name 
and  particular  uses.  Most  sweet  varieties  are  prolific  and  sucker  greatly. 
As  a  rule,  sweet  corn  requires  a  shorter  season  than  field  corn. 

Uses  of  Sweet  Corn 

]\lost  of  the  sweet  corn  grown  on  a  fi(4d  scale  in  the  Corn  Belt  is 
sold  to  canning  factories  that  are  within  hauling  distance  of  the  farms. 
Dried  sweet  corn  is  still  used  by  farmers,  and  sweet  corn  on  the  ears  in 
the  "roasting  stage"  or  "in  the  milk,"  is  an  important  vegetable.  A 
small  amount  is  picked  for  table  use.  Although  sweet  corn  yields  less 
than  field  corn,  a  few  farmers  prefer  it  for  hogging-down  or  sheeping- 
down.  According  to  the  Iowa  station,  "Sweet  corn  provides  an  early 
soiling  crop.  It  may  be  harvested  in  early  September  before  the  field 
corn  is  sufficiently  matured  and  at  a  time  when  green  feed  is  usually 
scarce.  Sweet  corn  silage  has  a  very  high  value.  The  stalks  are  sweet, 
palatable,  and  contain  less  crude  fiber  and  hence  a  higher  percentage  of 
digestible  matter  than  field  corn." 

Varieties 

Distinct  varieties  of  sweet  corn  were  not  well  developed  until  the 
last  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Now  there  are  a  great  number  of  varie- 
ties, which  are  usually  classed  as  to  time  and  maturity.  The  following 
ones  are  most  commonly  grown  in  the  Corn  Belt  for  canning  purposes : 


154 


CORN  AXD  CORX-GROWIXG 


1.     Stowell's  Evergreen — medium  late,  most  prominent  canning  variety. 

■1.  roitntry  Gentleman — late,  good  quality;  yields  less,  but  brings  higher 
price  than  Stowell's  Evergreen;  canners  like  it  because  the  grains  are  narrow. 

3.  Golden  Bantam — very  early,  small,  yellow,  tender;  prospects  of  becom- 
ing a  very  important  canning  variety  in  northern  sections. 

Soil  and  Climate 

Good  corn  land  is  as  important  for  sweet  corn  as  for  field  corn. 
For  a  description  of  corn  soils  and  fertilizers,  see  Chapter  8.  Sweet 
corn  is  not  as  hardy  as  the  field  corns,  and  is  more  easily  injnred  by 

frosts  or  liackward  spring  weather. 
Ill  addition,  hot  weather  makes  the 
corn  tough.  Cool  seasons  make  a 
tender  corn.  Otherwise,  the  general 
relation  of  climate  to  sweet  corn  is 
aliont  the  same  as  for  field  corn. 

Easy  on  the  Land 

Sweet  corn  when  harvested  at 
the  canning  stage  does  not  exhanst 
the  soil  fertility  as  do  most  farm 
crops.  It  is  a  well-recognized  fact 
that  the  processes  involved  in  the 
maturing  and  filling  out  of  the  seed 
make  a  heavy  drain  upon  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil.  Sweet  corn  is  har- 
vested before  this  stage  is  reached. 
At  this  stage,  ears  are  75  per  cent 
water.  As  sold  to  the  canning  fac- 
tory, the  ears  from  an  acre  of  sweet 
corn  remove  slightly  more  potash,  55 
per  cent  as  much  nitrogen  and  25 
per  cent  as  much  phosphorus  as  the 
ears  from  an  acre  of  field  corn. 
Since  potash  is  not  as  important  as 
nitrogen  and  phosphorus  under  Corn 
Belt  conditions,  it  may  be  seen  that 
sweet  com  is  quite  easy  on  the  land. 

Sweet  Corn  Seed 

According  to  Erwin,  it  is  cus- 
tomary for  the  canners  in  the  Corn 
I)elt  to  "renew  the  seed  supply,  eom- 
iiionly  from  the  New  England  States, 
every  year  or  at  frequent  intervals. 
This  practice  seems  to  be  based 
Evergreen  Sweet  Corn.  upon  three  assumptions  :     First,  that 

A  mature  seed  ear  of  good  type.         swret     corn     when     grown     continu- 


SWEET  CORN  155 

ously  under  Com  Belt  conditions  loses  in  sugar;  second,  becomes  starchy, 
and  third,  tough."  However,  Erwin's  tests  show  that  these  assump- 
tions are  not  always  true,  and  that  adapted  home-grown  seed  sliould  be 
used. 

Cultural  Methods 

A  well-prepared  seed  bed  similar  to  the  one  for  field  corn  should 
be  made  for  SAveet  corn.  The  crop  should  not  be  planted  until  after 
field  corn,  for  it  is  not  so  vigorous  and  grows  slowly  in  a  cold,  wet  soil. 
From  four  to  five  kernels  are  planted  in  a  hil].  Planting  operations 
and  cultivation  are  just  the  same  as  for  field  corn. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing 

Sweet  corn  is  harvested  much  earlier  than  the  field  varieties.  The 
harvest  season  is  about  a  month  in  length,  from  the  middle  of  August 
to  the  middle  of  September.  Collins  says  that  sweet  corn  is  at  its  best 
about  eighteen  days  after  the  silks  emerge.  The  ears  are  snapped  with 
the  husks  on  and  delivered  directly  to  the  canning  factory.  The  time 
for  this  is  directed  b}^  the  factory,  and  it  is  important  that  the  corn  be 
gathered  at  about  the  right  time.  With  th(^  sweet  corn  crop  there  is  no 
storage  ])roblem  and  no  loss  in  shrinkage. 

The  customary  yield  on  forty-bushel  corn  land  is  two  and  one-half 
tons  of  snapped  corn  to  the  acre.  Prices  for  sweet  corn  vary  greatly 
from  year  to  year.  However,  Corn  Belt  canneries  usually  pay  for  a 
ton  of  the  snapped  corn  delivered  to  the  factory  a  price  equivalent  to 
fourteen  to  seventeen  bushels  of  new  corn.  Of  course,  unusual  weather, 
causing  unusually  cheap  or  unusually  high  dent  corn  prices,  may  vary 
this  ratio,  but  one  year  Avith  another  these  figures  are  about  right  for 
Evergreen  corn.  Ordinarily,  the  gross  income  from  field  corn  and  sweet 
corn  groAvn  on  similar  land  is  about  the  same.  The  higher  value  of  sweet 
corn  stalks,  however,  and  the  other  incidental  advantages  make  the  real 
income  from  sweet  corn  usually  greater  than  from  dent  corn. 

Canning 

Practically  all  the  work  of  canning  is  done  by  machinery,  from  the 
time  the  corn  is  dumped  on  the  scales  until  it  is  loaded  on  cars  with 
labels  attached.  The  corn  is  first  husked,  then  the  ears  pass  through  a 
silker,  and  from  there  they  go  to  the  cutter.  The  cobs  are  ejected  from 
the  building,  while  the  kernels  pass  on  to  the  mixing  vat,  where  salt, 
sugar  and  water  are  added  in  proper  proportions.  The  corn  then  is  fed 
into  cans,  which  are  capped  and  cooked  in  steam  for  an  hour  or  two. 
Labeling  and  ])oxing  usually  are  not  done  until  after  the  rush  season, 
or  until  time  for  the  corn  to  be  put  on  the  market.  A  ton  of  ordinary 
Evergreen  sweet  corn  yields  about  672  cans,  or  28  cases.  With  prices  as 
they  prevailed  in  1923,  with  canned  Iowa  corn  selling  Avholesale,  per 
dozen,  at  90  cents,  it  would  seem  that  the  loAva  canneries  were  selling 
the  product  of  the  average  ton  for  about  .1^50.     Of  this,  about  $15  rep- 


156 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 


resented  the  cost  of  the  672  cans.  In  addition,  salt,  sugar  and  other 
materials  cost  about  $1-,  and  labor  amounted  to  perhaps  $12.  Overhead 
expenses  were  around  $10  and  the  farmers  were  paid  $9  a  ton  for  their 
corn.  The  retail  price  is  usually  45  per  cent  above  the  wholesale.  When 
Iowa  sweet  corn  retails  at  $1.30  a  dozen,  the  Iowa  farmer  is  paid  about 
23  cents  out  of  this  $1.30.  The  grower  of  the  sweet  corn  seems  to  be 
only  one  small  factor  in  a  highly  complicated  process. 

Table  XV 

Acreage,  Yield  Per  Acre  and  Price  Per  Ton  of  Sweet  Corn  Grown  for 
Manufacture,  1920-1922 

(Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.) 


Illinois  

Iowa  

Maine  

Ohio  

New  York  

Maryland    

Wisconsin   

Indiana   

Minnesota  

Michigan   

Delaware    

Vermont  

Pennsylvania 
All  other  


Acreage 


Yield  Per  Acre     Price  Per  Ton 


Total 


48,540|  27 
55,850  18 
15,S20|  10 
30,9701  13 
27,070|  14 
24,590 
10,870 
15,080 
11,860 

6,950 

3,000| 

2,140i 

3,430| 

9,900]     3 
266,0701135 


,580 
,520 
,040 
,790 


34,760 
32,120 
14,270 
20,310 

850|   16,6701 
660|  22,2601 


,640 
,180 
,700 
,270 
,570 
,820 
990 
,190| 


8,4901 
13,730| 
11,6601 
5,510| 
5,540| 
1,960| 
1,750| 
5,6901 


8001194,7201 


2.2| 
2.3 
3.1 
2.0 
2.0 
2.6 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.8 
2.2| 
2.2| 
2.2| 
2.3| 


2.6 
2.8 
3.2 
2.5 
2.3 
2.5 
2.8 
2.9 
2.8 
2.2 
2.0| 
2.3 
2.7 
2.9 
2.61 


Husk  Pile  Silage 


$19.75|$12 
15 
30 
18 
22 


2.61  23 

2.5|  15 

2.0|  18 

2.0|  15 

2.0|  14 

2.7  15 

2.0  20 

2.4|  17 

2.0|  13 
2.4|$19 


9.77 
7.20 
27.50 
5.70 
16.59 
10.00 
22|  10.54 
00|  10.00 
40|  9.14 
00  11.41 
00|  10.00 
00|  15.00 
00|  10.00 
981     8.07 


55|   12 

28!$13.45|$11. 


Husk  pile  silage  compares  favorably  with  ordinar^^  field  corn  silage. 
It  is  a  valuable  by-product  of  the  canning  factory,  that  is  usually  sold 
or  given  to  the  growers  for  feed.  This  silage  is  made  up  of  husks,  tips 
of  ears,  and  cobs,  which  are  high  in  protein  and  starch.  The  cobs  are 
not  as  valuable  as  the  husks  and  refuse  ear  tips.  Husk  pile  silage  fer- 
ments in  the  pile  where  it  is  dumped  at  the  factory,  and  it  need  not  be 
placed  in  a  silo. 


CHAPTER  29 

VARIETIES  OF  CORN 

A  LTHOUGH  there  may  be  a  thousand  varieties  or  strains  of  corn,  a 
few  leading'  ones  make  up  a  large  percentage  of  the  corn  grown. 
A  few  of  the  leading  varieties  iu  different  sections  of  the  Corn  Belt  are 
giveu  in  the  following  : 

Section  of  Corn  Belt  Leading  Varieties 

Northern Silver    King,    Minnesota    No.    13,    Northwestern    Dent, 

Wimple,  Golden  Glow. 
Central Reld    Yellow    Dent,    Silvermine,    Boone    County   White, 

Learning. 
Eastern Boone  County  White,  Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Johnson  County 

White,  Learning,  Punk   Yellow   Dent. 
Western Reid    Yellow    Dent,    Silvermine,    Hogue    Yellow    Dent, 

Freed  White  Dent,  Calico. 
Southern Reid  Yellow  Dent,  Boone  County  White  Dent,  St.  Charles 

White,  Kansas  Sunflower. 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

Reid  Yellow  Dent  was  originated  by  an  accidental  cross  between  a 
rather  late,  light-reddish  colored  corn  and  a  small,  early  yellow  corn. 
Robert  Reid,  the  originator,  brought  the  reddish  colored  corn,  known 
as  Gordon  Hopkins  corn,  to  Illinois  from  Brown  county,  Ohio,  in  1846. 
Because  of  a  poor  stand  in  1847,  a  small  yellow  corn  was  used  in  re- 
planting the  missing  hills,  and  so  the  cross  occurred.  James  L.  Reid,  a 
son  of  Robert  Reid,  improved  the  hybrid  by  selection,  his  best  work 
being  done  from  1870  to  1900.  He  won  a  prize  with  it  at  the  World's 
Fair,  in  1893,  and  as  a  result  it  soon  became  widely  distributed. 

Standard  ears  of  this  variety  are  nine  to  ten  inches  long  and  seven 
to  seven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference,  for  the  central  Corn  Belt, 
but  vary  somewhat  with  the  section  of  the  Corn  Belt  in  which  they  are 
grown.  The  ear  is  slightly  tapering,  the  rows  are  closely  spaced,  dis- 
tinctly dove-tailed,  and  average  from  sixteen  to  twenty-two  in  number. 
The  kernels  are  slightlj'  keystone  in  shape,  of  medium  depth  and  nar- 
row to  medium  in  width,  Avith  a  square  crown  and  a  smooth  to  rough 
indentation.  The  normal  color  is  yellow,  but  the  reddish  tinge  of  the 
Gordon  Hopkins  often  appears.  The  cobs  are  inclined  to  be  small  and 
are  dark  red  in  color.  The  stalk  is  rather  heavy,  tall  and  leafy.  The 
ears  are  often  borne  a  little  too  high  on  the  stalk  unless  care  is  taken  in 
selection.  The  general  opinion  seems  to  be  that  Reid  Yellow  Dent  can 
not  be  surpassed  on  rich  soil  Avhere  it  has  become  acclimated. 


158 


C^>RX  AND  CORX-GKOWIXG 


Reid  Yellow  Dent  requires  from  110  to  120  days  to  mature  and 
should  be  classed  as  medium  late.  At  present,  due  to  wide  adaptability, 
it  is  the  most  common  yellow  variety  in  the  Corn  Belt,  although  the  type 
necessarily  has  been  modified  to  fit  many  different  conditions.  The 
type  as  now  generally  grown  is  rougher  than  the  type  whicli  Reid  orig- 
inally preferred. 

Outstanding  strains  of  Reid  corn  are  lodent,  Black,  McCulloch  and 
Krug.  lodent  is  an  early  Reid  developed  by  L.  C.  Burnett,  after  years 
of  painstaking  ear-row  work  at  the  Iowa  station.     Black   lias  resulted 


a;uiii;sMM««vWMmmmsm«v\ 


aWT  t 


Ut'id  corn.     (Rough  type.) 


from  a  cross  of  lodent  and  a  late  show  type  of  Reid,  made  by  Clyde 
Black,  of  Dallas  county,  Towa.  McCulloch  was  produced  by  selection  from 
a  cross  of  a  small  amount  of  Pride  of  the  North  with  a  large  amount  of 
Reid.  Fred  McCulloch,  of  Iowa  county,  Iowa,  was  the  originator.  George 
Krug.  of  Woodford  county,  Illinois,  in  1903,  crossed  Gold  ]\Iine  with  a 
Nebraska  strain  of  Reid  and  has  developed  Krug  corn  by  selecting  con- 
tinuously for  a  smoother,  rather  small-eared  type.  All  of  these  strains 
have  demonstrated  their  ability  to  yield.  fSee  Chapter  o6,  on  Corn  Yield 
Contests.) 

Boone  County  White 

Boone  County  White  was  originated  in  Boone  county,  liuliaiui, 
by  ^Ir.  -Tames  Riley.  In  1876,  he  obtained  his  foundation  stock,  which 
was  a  large,  coarse,  late-maturing  variety  of  corn  known  as'  White 
]\Iastodon.  The  stalk  is  heavy  and  rank,  with  short  inter-nodes  and 
abundant  foliage.  The  ideal  ear  is  nine  and  one-half  to  ten  and  three- 
fourths  inches  long  and  seven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference. 
The  shape  is  nearly  cylindrical,  with  straight  rows,  sixteen  to  twenty- 
two  in  number,  and  of  medium  spacing.  The  butts  arc  rather  large  and 
open,  with  shallow  cavity.  The  cob  is  white  and  is  rather  large  and 
heavy.  The  kernels  are  thick  and  ])locky,  medium  to  wide,  and  medium 
to  deep.  The  normal  color  is  a  creamy  white  and  the  usual  indentation 
is  rather  rough. 

Boone  County  White  is  a  hitc-maturing  variety  of  corn,  recpiiriiiL;' 
120  to  125  days.  It  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  southern  Corn  Belt,  and 
on  account  of  its  late  maturity  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  remainder 
of  the  (;'orn  Belt.     However,  it  is  a   popular  corn  on  the  rich  land  of 


VARIETIES  OF  CORN 


15!) 


the  .sections  wliere  it  is  adapted.  Boone  County  AVhite  and  the  related 
Johnson  County  White  are  far  more  widely  gTOwn  than  any  otlier  white 
Corn  Belt  varieties. 

Learning 

Learning-  corn  has  been  developed  since  1856,  according  to  W.  A. 
Lloyd,  of  the  Ohio  station.  It  did  not  originate  in  1826.  Mr.  Lloyd 
says:  ''Manifestly,  J.  S.  Learning  could  not,  as  it  is  often  stated,  have 
originated  this  corn  at  that  time  (1826)."  J.  S.  Leaming,  in  develop- 
iiii:'    Learning    corn.    ])lac('d    special    emphasis    on    early    maturity.      He 


Leaming  corn   (original  type,  as  favored  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Leaming 


Thniight  that  a  rather  short  stalk,  heavy  at  the  V)utt  and  tajx'ring  rapidly. 
l)earing"  a  tapering'  ear.  "\^'as  the  type  that  matured  earliest.  The  original 
Leaming:  corn  ripened  in  from  90  to  100  days. 

The  present  day  type  of  stalk  is  still  medium  in  height.  The  ideal 
ear  is  nine  to  ten  and  one-half  inches  in  length  and  seven  to  seven  and 
three-fourths  inches  in  circumference,  with  large,  rather  open  bntt  and 
distinctly  pointed  tips.  The  roAvs  vary  from  sixteen  to  twenty-fonr 
in  number.  The  kernels  of  true  Leaming  are  medium  in  depth,  very 
thick  and  rather  narrow.  Leaming  is  a  deeper  yellow  than  most  yellow 
dents.  The  indentation  varies  from  smooth  to  rough,  luit  in  the  original 
Leaming  the  smooth  type  was  preferred. 

It  is  grown  most  extensively  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of 
the  south-central  Corn  Belt  and  to  some  extent  in  adjoining  sections  of 
the  north-central  Corn  Belt.  Leaming  became  popular  in  the  eighties 
and  nineties,  partly  because  of  the  publicity  it  received  from  winning 
prizes  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Paris,  in  1878. 

Silvermine 

8ilvermine  originated  with  J.  A.  Beagley,  of  Sibley,  Illinois,  who 
started  Avith  a  sample  of  white  corn  which  won  a  prize  at  the  Ford 
county,  Illinois,  institute  in  1890.  The  Iowa  Seed  Company,  of  Des 
Aloines,  bought  his  entire  crop  in  1895,  for  $1,000,  and  originated  the 
name,  Iowa  Silvermine. 

Silvermine  is  not  a  rank-growing  variety,  and  even  on  rich  soil  it 
does  not  produce  as  heavy  foliage  as  some  varieties.  The  stem  is  of  a 
fine  texture  and  there  is  little  coarseness  about  the  joints.     The  ears  are 


160  COR\  AND  CORX-G ROWING 

medium  in  size,  beinp-  from  nine  to  ten  inches  in  lenu'th  and  from  seven 
to  seven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference.  They  are  cylindrical 
for  about  two-thirds  of  the  lenfjth  of  the  ear  and  then  slowly  taper  off 
at  the  tip.  The  kernels  are  of  medium  depth  and  width,  but  thin  in 
comparison  with  their  width.  The  dent  varies  from  smooth  to  roufi'h. 
The  color  is  creamy  white.  The  deep  kernel  and  small  cob  of  Silvermine 
give  it  a  high  shelling  percentage. 

Silvermine  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate  and  soil  and 
has  the  reputation  of  doing  well  on  poor  soils.  It  is  a  medium  early  corn, 
maturing  in  110  to  115  days,  and  is  well  adapted  to  central  Corn  Belt 
conditions.  It  is  the  leading  white  variety  just  north  of  the  section 
where  Boone  County  White  is  widely  grown. 

Silver  King 

Silver  King,  also  known  as  Wisconsin  Xo.  7,  was  first  developed  as 
a  variety  by  H.  J.  Goddard,  of  Fort  Atkinson,  Iowa,  who  brought  a 
bushel  of  the  seed  from  Indiana  to  Fayette  county,  Iowa,  in  1862.  Mr. 
Goddard  selected  for  early  maturity  and  yield.  To  improve  the  yield, 
he  selected  fairly  large  ears  with  deep,  wide  kernels,  a  medium  to  small 
cob  and  closely  spaced  rows.     One  of  the  valuable  characteristics  of  this 


Silver  King. 

corn  is  its  freedom  from  barren  stalks.  The  ideal  ear  is  eight  to  nine 
inches  long  and  six  and  three-fourths  to  seven  and  one-half  inches  in 
circumference.  There  is  a  gradual  taper  from  butt  to  tip,  and  the  rows 
average  sixteen  to  the  ear  and  are  inclined  to  be  wavy.  Silver  King  has 
creamy  white  kernels  which  are  very  wide,  of  medium  depth  and  thick- 
ness, slightly  keystone  in  shape.  The  usual  indentation  is  rough.  It  is 
one  of  the  earliest  maturing  of  the  prominent  varieties,  maturing  in  100 
to  110  days.  It  ranks  first  in  importance  in  the  northern  Corn  Belt  and 
stands  next  to  Reid  Yellow  Dent  in  the  north-central  parts.  Some  Silver 
King  is  grown  as  far  south  as  JMissouri,  but  only  for  late  planting  or 
rej)lanting. 

Kansas  Sunflower 

Kansas  Sunflower  originated  from  an  early  yellow  variety  of  corn 
introduced  from  Iowa  into  Douglas  county,  Kansas,  in  1887.  John 
]\Ioody,  of  Eudora,  Kansas,  obtained  seed  of  this  variety  in  1890,  and 
continued  growing  it  for  some  time,  carefullv  selecting  the  seed  each 


VARIETIES  OF  CORN  161 

season.  Five  years  later  he  sold  his  entire  crop  to  the  Barteldes  Seed 
Company,  of  Lawrence,  from  Miience  it  was  distributed  under  the  name 
of  Kansas  Sunflower. 

The  stalks  grow  from  eight  to  nine  feet  in  height,  are  fairly  leafy, 
and  under  favorable  conditions  sucker  rather  badly.  The  variety  is  a 
hardy  and  vigorous  grower.  The  ideal  ears  are  nine  to  ten  inches  in 
length  and  seven  inches  or  slightly  less  in  circumference.  The  ears  are 
rather  slender  and  taper  slightly,  carrying  ordinarily  fourteen  to  eight- 
een rows  of  kernels.  The  kernels  are  broad,  medium  deep  and  of  medium 
indentation.     The  grain  of  Kansas  Sunflower  is  a  bright,  rich  yellow. 

Kansas  Sunflower  is  a  medium  late  variety,  which  rij^ens  in  120  to 
125  days.  It  is  well  adapted  for  growing  throughout  eastern  Kansas. 
Because  of  the  slender  ears  and  lack  of  show  characters,  Kansas  Sun- 
flow^er  has  not  been  a  very  popular  variety,  even  though  it  has  consist- 
ently given  good  results. 

St.  Charles  White 

The  St.  Charles  White  is  a  native  of  St.  Charles  county,  Missouri, 
where  it  has  been  grown  for  a  great  many  years.  Two  types  of  this 
corn  are  recognized — the  small  St.  Charles  and  the  large  St.  Charles, 
the  former  being  slightly  earlier  and  better  adapted  to  thin  lands. 

The  ears  taper  somewhat  from  butt  to  tip.  The  cobs  possess  the 
striking  peculiarity  of  being  blood-red  in  color.  The  St.  Charles  White 
is  a  late-maturing  variety,  averaging  125  to  130  days  for  complete  ma- 
turity. It  is  a  rank-growing  variety  with  adaptation  similar  to  Booue 
County  White.     It  is  useful  as  a  silage  variety. 

Commercial  White 

The  Commercial  Wliite  corn  was  originated  by  P.  E.  Crabtree,  of 
Barton  county,  Missouri,  who  developed  the  corn  by  sc^lecting  the  white 
cobbed  ears  of  the  St.  Charles  White.  The  ideals  which  have  been  kept 
in  mind  in  selection  are  uniform  kernels  of  medium  depth,  Avith.  a  low 
amount  of  crown  starch  and  large  germs. 

The  ears  are  larger  in  circumference  and  more  cylindrical  than  are 
those  of  the  St.  Charles  White,  but  often  taper  quite  abruptly  at  the 
tip.  The  rows  are  straight  and  distinctly  paired.  The  butts  have  a 
tendency  to  be  flat  and  often  have  a  large  shank.  The  kernels  are 
broader  than  those  of  St.  Charles  White  and  are  only  of  medium  depth. 
The}^  are  thick  and  a  trifle  more  wedge  shaped  than  the  St.  Charles 
White  and  more  rounded  at  the  top.  They  possess  a  small  amount  of 
crown  starch  and  are  pearly  white  in  color.  The  indentation  is  medium 
smooth. 

Commercial  White  is  a  late  maturing  variety  which  requires  125 
to  130  days  for  complete  ripening.  It  is  a  tall  growing  corn,  averaging 
about  nine  feet  for  the  state,  and  very  leafy.  The  stalks  are  very  strong 
and  stocky.  The  cob,  which  has  a  tendency  to  dry  slowly,  prevents  as 
high  a  grade  of  market  corn  as  either  Boone  County  White  or  St.  Charles 


162  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

White.  It  is  a  good  silage  variety.  Missouri  co-operative  tests  have 
shown  it  to  be  the  highest  yielding  variety  on  the  black  prairie  uplands 
of  the  state. 

Minnesota  13 

Minnesota  13  was  originated  l)y  ear-row  breeding  at  the  ]\Iinne- 
sota  experiment  station,  from  seed  purchased  in  1893,  from  a  St.  Paul 
seed  company.  Probably  it  was  from  Pride  of  the  North.  The  ideal 
ears  are  seven  to  eight  inches  long  and  six  and  one-half  inches  in  circum- 
ference. There  are  twelve  to  sixteen  rows  and  the  ears  are  slightly 
tapering.  It  has  yellow  kernels  and  a  red  cob.  The  kernels  are  shallow 
and  have  a  dimpled  dent.  It  is  an  early-matnring  but  heavy-yielding 
variety,  adapted  to  the  region  extending  from  southern  ^Minnesota  north- 
Avard. 

Golden  Glow 

Golden  Glow,  which  is  the  most  popular  yellow  dent  in  Wisconsin, 
Avas  originated  by  the  Wisconsin  station  by  crossing  a  Wisconsin  strain 
of  ^Minnesota  13  Avith  a  someAA^hat  later  and  larger-eared  variety  long 
groAA^n  in  Wisconsin  under  the  name  of  North  Star.  After  several  years 
of  selection,  the  new  variety  AA'as  distributed  by  the  Wisconsin  station. 

Hogue  YelloAV  Dent 

Hogue  YelloAv  Dent  has  been  groAvn  by  :;\lr.  R.  Hogue,  of  Crete, 
Saline  county,  Nebraska,  since  1885.  He  obtained  the  corn  from  Lan- 
caster county,  Nebraska.  The  history  of  the  corn  previous  to  that  time 
is  not  knoAvn.  Mr.  Hogue  has  carefully  selected  the  seed  each  year, 
having  particularly  in  view  a  deep  kernel.  The  result  is  an  ear  Avith 
rather  deep  kernels,  deeply  indented  and  fairly  late  maturing.  One 
characteristic  of  the  corn  is  a  thick,  medium  tall  stalk  Avith  long,  broad 
leaves,  giving  a  large  amount  of  foliage.  The  variety  has  never  been 
intentionally  crossed  since  Mr.  Hogue  obtained  it.  Mr.  Hogue  has 
never  undertaken  to  select  for  uniformity  of  kernel  type  or  ear ;  in  fact, 
he  has  ahvays  intentionally  selected  and  mixed  several  ear  types  for 
his  seed  supply. 

The  standard  for  type  adopted  by  the  Nebraska  Corn  Improvers' 
Association  is:  Shape  of  ear,  slightly  tapering;  length  of  ear,  eight 
to  nine  inches ;  circumference  of  ear,  seven  to  eight  inches ;  color  of 
kernel,  yelloAv ;  shape  of  kernel,  Avedge ;  indentation  of  kernel,  rough ; 
number  of  roAvs,  sixteen  to  tAventy ;  size  of  shank,  medium ;  size  of  cob, 
medium ;  color  of  cob,  red. 

The  variety  requires  approximately  120  days  to  mature  and  is  not 
AA'ell  suited  under  conditions  of  a  shorter  groAving  season.  It  is  ex- 
tensiA'ely  groAvn  in  eastern  Nebraska  and  central  Kansas. 

Johnson  County  White 
Johnson   County  White   Avas   originated   by  J.   D.   Whitesides,   in 
Johnson  county,  Indiana,  in  1893,  from  a  cross  betAveen  Boone  County 
AVhite  and  Forsythe's  Favorite,  and  Avas  imjiroved  by  several  farmers. 


VARIETIES  OP  CORN  163 

The  ideal  ears  are  about  nine  and  one-half  to  ten  and  one-half  inches 
long-  and  seven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference.  They  are  about 
the  same  size  as  Boone  County  White,  but  are  slightly  more  tapering-. 
The  kernels  are  narrower  and  more  nearly  square  at  the  crown  than 
Boone  County  White.  They  are  also  deeper,  rougher  and  more  starchy 
in  composition,  which  gives  them  a  starchy  white  color. 

Johnson  County  White  matures  in  120  to  125  days,  and  is  adapted 
to  the  southern  Corn  Belt,  but  is  too  large  and  late  maturing  north  of 
southern  Iowa.     It  is  replacing  Boone  County  White  in  many  localities. 

Freed  White  Dent 

This  variet}'  was  developed  by  J.  K.  Freed,  of  Scott  county,  Kansas, 
who  began  by  selecting  a  badly  mixed  variety  of  a  local  corn  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  more  uniform  type  of  ear  and  kernel.  The 
original  source  of  the  foundation  stock  is  unknown.  The  corn  has  been 
grown  in  western  Kansas  for  at  least  thirty   years. 

Freed  White  Dent  ranges  in  height  from  six  to  eight  feet,  depend- 
ing on  the  growing  conditions.  The  stalks  are  sturdy,  fairly  leafy,  and 
are  likely  to  sucker  extensively  under  favorable  conditions,  but  not  to 
so  great  an  extent  as  most  other  western  developed  varieties.  The  ideal 
ears  are  seven  to  eight  and  one-half  inches  long  and  six  and  one-half  to 
six  and  three-fourths  inches  in  circumference.  The  number  of  rows  of 
kernels  varies  from  twelve  to  sixteen.  The  kernels  are  rather  shallow 
and  medium  in  width  and  thickness.  The  dent  is  smooth  and  the  kernel 
texture  is  flinty. 

Freed  White  Dent  is  an  early  variety,  which  matures  in  105  to  110 
days.  It  is  primarily  adapted  for  growing  in  western  Kansas  and  on 
the  uplands  in  west-central  Kansas.  Because  of  its  hardiness  and  vigor- 
ous growing  habits,  it  is  an  exceptionally  high-yielding  early  corn  for 
growing  anj'where  in  Kansas. 

Northwestern  Dent 

The  origin  of  Northwestern  Dent  is  doubtful,  but  almost  certainly 
was  the  result  of  crossing  a  dent  and  a  flint,  one  of  which  was  red.  It 
is  a  semi-dent  variety  that  normally  produces  more  suckers  and  leaves 
than  any  other  common  dent.  The  ear  is  six  to  nine  inches  long  with  ten 
to  fourteen  rows  of  kernels.  The  kernels  are  red  with  a  wliite  or  yel- 
lowish crown.  It  is  a  hardy  corn  adapted  to  the  extreme  northern  part 
of  the  Corn  Belt,  and  is  the  best  known  variety  in  the  northwest. 

Wimple  Yellow  Dent 

Wimple  Yellow  Dent  was  developed  by  ■Mr.  Wimple,  of  Beresford, 
South  Dakota.  The  ideal  ears  are  eight  to  nine  and  one-half  inches  in 
length  and  tapering  in  shape.  The  kernels  are  wide  with  a  short  beak 
dent  and  are  lemon  yellow  in  color.  It  has  a  larger  ear  and  considerably 
heavier  stalk  than  Silver  King.     Wimple  Yellow  Dent  matures  in  from 


164  TORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

105  to  115  days.  It  has  been  grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Corn 
Belt  for  a  number  of  years.  The  originator  has  recently  developed 
a  smoother,  earlier  strain. 

Funk  Yellow  Dent 

Mr.  Funk,  of  ^McLean  county,  Illinois,  secured  the  original  seed  from 
'Sir.  James  Reid,  about  thirty  years  ago.  Since  that  time,  popular  opinion 
has  demanded  several  variations  in  type.  For  a  time,  it  was  bred  for  a 
rough  type,  but  in  recent. years  the  emphasis  has  been  on  the  smooth. 

A  popular  utility  type  of  corn  is  Funk  Yellow^  Dent,  Strain  176-A. 
The  ideal  ears  are  nine  to  eleven  inches  long  and  seven  to  eight  inches 
in  circumference.  This  variety  conforms  just  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
the  utility  type  score  card.  The  story  of  how  this  strain  of  corn  has 
been  developed  from  Funk  YelloAv  Dent  is  as  follows : 

■'In  germinating  several  hundred  bushels  of  seed  corn  during  the 
winter  of  1915  and  1916,  we  occasionally  noted  a  few  ears  on  the  ger- 
minator  that  were  remarkably  free  from  molds  and  rotting  and  that 
possessed  unusual  vigor  and  magnificent  root  development.  These  ears 
proved  their  superiority  in  the  field  during  the  following  season,  by  far 
outclassing  everything  else  in  the  experimental  plots.  The  progeny  from 
these  champion  mother  ears  have  been  multiplied  and  improved  further 
by  special  breeding  methods." 

Calico 

Strains  of  Calico  have  been  developed  by  different  growers.  The 
shape  of  the  kernel,  dent,  character  of  stalk  and  length  of  growing  season 
vary  considerably,  depending  upon  the  grower.  The  ears  are  from  nine 
to  eleven  inches  long  and  almost  cylindrical.  The  kernels  are  variegated 
in  color,  ranging  from  pink  to  red,  depending  upon  the  amount  of 
red  in  the  striping,  but  there  are  sometimes  groups  of  kernels  of  solid 
white,  red  or  yellow.  It  is  quite  widely  distributed  and  has  no  fixed 
characteristics.  Many  strains  are  early  to  medium  maturing.  These 
are  well  adapted  to  western  Corn  Belt  conditions. 

Bloody  Butcher 

Bloody  Butcher  is  a  name  applied  to  strains  having  a  deep  red  grain. 
The  crown  of  the  kernel  varies  in  color  for  the  different  varieties,  but 
is  usually  lighter  than  the  remainder  of  the  kernel.  As  a  rule.  Bloody 
Butcher  corn  is  not  any  more  productive  than  corn  of  any  other  color. 
Like  Calico,  the  different  varieties  of  Bloody  Butcher  vary  greatly,  as 
do  those  of  the  white  and  yellow  varieties.  The  red  color  is  in  the  hull 
only;  beneath  the  hull,  some  Bloody  Butchers  are  white  and  some  are 
yellow. 

Several  of  the  important  varieties  in  addition  to  the  ones  just  de- 
scribed are  as  follows : 


VARIETIES  OF  CORN  165 

Early  White  Dent 

.Marten  White  Dent  (Great  Plains)  ;  Payne  White  Dent  (Great 
Plains)  ;  Pioneer  White  Dent  (North^vest)  ;  Rustler  White  Dent  (North- 
west), and  Webber  Early  Dent  (Great  Plains). 

Medium  to  Late  White  Dent 

Brazos  White  (Texas)  ;  Champion  White  Pearl  (Illinois)  ;  Chisholm 
(Southwest)  ;  Cob  Pipe  or  Collier  (Missouri)  ;  Democrat  (Illinois)  ; 
Easterly  White  (Illinois)  ;  Eureka  (general)  ;  Farmer's  Pride  (eastern 
Corn  Belt)  ;  Farmer's  Interest  (eastern  Corn  Belt)  ;  Faulkner  (Illinois)  ; 
Forsythe  (Kansas)  ;  Hammett  (Kansas)  ;  Iowa  Ideal  (Iowa)  ;  McAuley 
(Kansas)  ;  Mexican  June  (Southwest)  ;  ]\Iunikhuysen  (Southeast)  ;  Ne- 
braska Wliite  Prize  (Nebraska)  ;  Pride  of  Saline  (Kansas)  ;  Roseland 
(Kansas)  ;  Shawnee  White  (Kansas)  ;  Sherrod  White  Dent  (Kansas)  ; 
Surcropper  (Southwest)  ;  Tuxpan  (Southwest)  ;  Vogler  White  Dent 
(Indiana),  and  White  Wonder  (Oklahoma). 

Early  Yellow  Dent 

Ardmore  Yellow  (South  Dakota)  ;  Brown  County  Yellow  (North- 
Avest)  ;  Golden  Surprise  (Ohio  and  Illinois)  ;  Kossuth  County  Reliance 
(Iowa)  ;  Minnesota  King  (Minnesota)  ;  Murdock  (Wisconsin)  ;  Pride 
of  the  North  (general),  and  Robertson  Yellow  Dent  (Northwest). 

Medium  to  Late  Yellow 

Bear  Paw  (Ohio)  ;  Gartner  (Missouri)  ;  Champion  (Ohio)  ;  Clarage 
(Ohio)  ;  Cuppy  (Ohio)  ;  Darke  County  Mammoth  (Ohio)  ;  Early  Yellow 
(Indiana)  ;  Ferguson  (Southwest)  ;  Giant  Beauty  (Southeast)  ;  Golden 
Beauty  (Missouri)  ;  Golden  Eagle  (Illinois)  ;  Golden  Gem  (Southeast)  ; 
Golden  King  (Illinois)  ;  Goldmine  (general)  ;  Hiawatha  (Kansas)  ;  Hil- 
dreth  (Kansas)  ;  K.  B.  Yellow  Dent  (Iowa)  ;  Lancaster  Sure  Crop 
(Pennsylvania)  ;  Legal  Tender  (general)  ;  Midland  Yellow  (Kansas)  ; 
Monitor  (Ohio)  ;  Riley  Favorite  (Indiana)  ;  St.  Charles  Yellow  Mis- 
souri; Shroll  Yellow  Dent  (Ohio)  ;  Skipper  (Southeast)  ;  Wabash  Yellow 
(Indiana)  ;  Western  Plowman  (Illinois),  and  Yellow  Jumbo  (Ohio). 

Miscellaneous  Dent 

Blue  and  White  (scattered)  ;  Devolid  (Ohio)  ;  Early  Red  (scat- 
tered) ;  Hackberry  (Ohio)  ;  Hecker  Red  (Illinois)  ;  Lenocher  Homestead 
(Iowa)  ;  Minnesota  23  (Northwest)  ;  Old  Glory  (Texas)  ;  Rotten  Clarage 
(Ohio)  ;  Strawberry  (general)  ;  Stony  Hill  White  Cap  (New  York)  ; 
Strout  Red  (Illinois)  ;  Swadley  (Great  Plains),  and  White  Cap  Y.  D. 
(general). 

Cotton  Belt  Single  Ear 

Lowman  (yellow)  ;  Shenandoah  White  (white)  ;  Southern  Beauty 
(white)  ;  Wyatt  Improved  (yellow)  ;  Hickory  King  (white). 


]66  CORN  AND  CORN  GROWING 

Cotton  Belt  Prolific 

Bigg  Seven  Ear  (Avhite)  ;  Cocke  Prolific  (white);  Garric  (whiTf  : 
Hasting  Prolific  (white)  ;  Hickory  King  (white)  ;  Jarvis  Golden  Prolific 
(yellow);  Marlboro  Prolific  (white);  Mosby  (white),  and  Sanders 
(white). 

New  England  Flints 

Hall  Gold  Nugget ;  King  Philip  ;  Longfellow;  ]\Iercer;  Rhode  Island  : 
Sanford  White ;  Smut  Nose. 

Northwestern  Flints 

Assiniboine  ;  Burleigh  County  Mixed  ;  Cassia  County ;  Dakota  White  : 
Fort  Peck  Indian ;  Gehu. 

Southern  Flints 
Creole. 

Argentine  Yellow  Flints 
Canario;  Colorado,  and  Piamontese. 

Italian  Yellow  Flints 

Cinquantino;  Nostrano  Isola;  Pignoletta  d'oro;  Rostrato.  and  Scag- 
liolo. 

Soft  Corn 

Ivory  King ;  Mixed ;  Rea,  and  Brazilian  Flour. 


CHAPTER  30 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PLANT 

npHE  two  steps  in  the  development  of  the  corn  plant  are  first,  g-ermina- 

tion,  and  second,  growth.  The  essentials  of  these  two  steps  in  devel- 
opment are  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

Germination 

The  four  conditions  necessary  for  seed  to  germinate  are  (1)  vitality', 
(2)  moisture,  (3)  heat  and  (4)  oxygen. 

Under  favorable  conditions,  corn  may  retain  its  vitality  for  ten 
years.  However,  after  the  second  year  of  storage,  the  vigor  of  germi- 
nation rapidly  declines.  As  a  practical  proposition,  seed  corn  should 
never  be  kept  past  the  second  year. 

Moisture  is  necessary  for  seeds  to  germinate.  Water  readily  pene- 
trates and  softens  the  seed  coat  of  corn. 

Corn  requires  a  higher  temperature  to  germinate  than  the  small 
grains.  It  is  a  crop  which  germinates  best  under  higher  temperatures 
than  usually  prevail  in  May.  Doctor  Pammel,  of  the  Iowa  station,  gives 
the  following  temperatures  for  the  germination  of  corn :  Minimum, 
49.9  degrees  F. ;  maximum,  134.8  degrees  F. ;  optimum,  91.4  degrees  F. 
Cold-resistant  strains  of  corn  are  being  developed  which  will  germinate 
Avhen  the  temperature  is  as  low  as  43  degrees  F. 

Oxygen  is  found  in  the  seed,  but  not  enough  for  germination.  One 
of  the  reasons  that  corn  does  not  germinate  well  on  poorly  drained  soils 
is  that  the  excess  water  in  the  soil  excludes  oxygen. 

Growth 

Growth  is  cellular  development.  During  early  development,  growth 
takes  place  in  all  parts  at  the  same  time,  and  after  the  first  three  weeks 
of  growth  all  parts  of  the  plant  are  formed.  The  five  essentials  for  the 
growth  of  the  corn  plant  are  (1)  vigor,  (2)  water,  (3)  light,  (4)  heat, 
and  (5)  plant  food. 

The  plant  must  have  inborn  vigor.  A  seed  may  sprout,  but  if  the 
seedling  does  not  have  strength,  a  normal  plant  will  not  be  obtained. 

Water 

Corn  requires  large  quantities  of  water  to  carry  plant  food  and  to 
keep  it  from  wilting.  Kiesselbach  found  that  the  rapidity  of  transpira- 
tion of  corn  varies  directly  with  the  temperature  and  the  leaf  area.  A 
well-grown  corn  plant  on  a  hot  day  in  late  July  w411  transpire  five  to 
ten  pounds  of  water.  This  means  that  an  acre  of  corn  plants  at  this 
time  of  year  is  pumping  up  water  from  below  and  throwing  it  into  the 
atmosphere  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  tons  daily,  or  720  tons  of  water  per 
acre  for  the  forty  days  during  July  and  August  when  the  corn  is  most 
active. 


168  CORN  AND  CORX-GROWING 

Light 

Light  furnishes  the  power  which  all  green  plants  require.  The  pro- 
cess bj^  which  green  plants  take  sunlight  and  store  up  its  poAver  is  known 
a.s  photosynthesis  (light-building).  In  photosynthesis  the  carbon  diox- 
ide of  the  air  enters  the  leaves  through  stomata  (little  holes)  and  is 
there  combined  by  the  poAver  of  the  sunlight  Avith  Avater  to  make  for- 
maldehyde and  later  starch.  Starch  is  literally  imprisoned  sunshine.  Of 
all  green  plants,  corn  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  in  capturing  sunlitiht 
in  large  quantities  and  storing  it  aAvay  in  the  form  of  starch. 

Heat 

Corn  recpiires  a  large  amount  of  heat  for  deA'elopment.  In  a  Penn- 
sylvania experiment,  it  AA'as  found  that  during  the  tAA^enty-tAA'o  days 
preceding  tasseling,  tho.se  days  Avith  a  mean  temperature  of  less  than 
70  degrees  F.  usually  resulted  in  a  groAA^th  of  three  to  three  and  one- 
half  inches  in  tAventy-four  hours,  Avhereas  those  days  AA'ith  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  75  or  more  degrees  resulted  in  a  groAvth  of  five  to  five  and 
one-half  inches  in  tAventy-four  hours.  When  the  temperature  in  the 
daytime  exceeded  85  degrees,  further  increases  did  not  seem  to  result 
in  greater  groAvth,  probably  because  of  moisture  shortage. 
Plant  Foods 

A  fifth  essential  for  groAvth  is  jilant  food.  In  general,  corn  requires 
the  folloAving  chemical  elements:  Carbon  (C),  hydrogen  (H),  oxygen 
(0),  phosphorus  (P),  potassium  (K),  nitrogen  (N),  sulphur  (S),  cal- 
cium (Ca),  iron  (Fe),  magnesium  (Mg).  The  expression,  "C.HOP- 
K(i)NS  CaFe  Mg  (Mighty  Cxood)  "  is  a  reminder  of  the  essential  chem- 
ical elements. 

Oxygen,  carbon  and  hydrogen  are  furnished  by  air  and  Avater, 
Avhereas  the  other  elements  are  minerals  in  the  soil.  About  f)7  ])er  cent 
of  the  corn  kernel  comes  from  the  air  and  only  3  per  cent  from  the  soil. 
Each  element  is  a  specialist  in  its  OAvn  field,  and  should  it  become  defi- 
cient can  not  be  replaced  by  another. 

Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  element.  It  readily  forms  com})ounds 
Avith  practically  all  other  elements  and  constitutes  about  one-half  of 
all  knoAvn  matter.  It  enters  the  plant  in  the  compound,  CO,,  a  gas,  and 
HoO,  Avater,  Avhere  it  is  further  changed  by  sunlight  to  build  up  the 
carbohydrates  and  proteins.  The  corn  kernel  is  about  46  per  cent 
oxygen. 

Carbon  is  closely  associated  AA'ith  plant  life.  It  enters  the  leaves 
of  the  ])lant  in  the  form  of  COo,  Avhere  it  is  combined  by  sunlight  Avith 
Avater  brought  up  from  the  roots  to  form  sugar,  starches  and  the  like. 
Carbon  composes  45  per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel. 

Hydrogen  is  the  third  most  abundant  element  in  the  corn  ker- 
nel. It  makes  up  6.4  per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel.  Water  is  the  one 
important  source  of  h.ydrogen  for  plant  growth.  This  element  is  com- 
bined by  sunlight  Avith  carbon  and  oxygen  to  form  the  various  carbo- 
hydrates and  proteins  Avithin  the  plant. 


]VKVEL()PMENT  OF  THE  PLANT  169 

Xitrogeii  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  possibly  the  least  ap- 
preciated elements.  It  forms  one-sixth  of  the  protein  in  plants,  the 
formation  of  which  would  be  stopped  without  it.     Nitrogen : 

.1.  Stimulates  growth  of  foliage. 

2.  Imparts  a  deeper  green  color  to  foliage. 

3.  Delays  the  maturing  process. 

4.  Controls  the  amount  of  other  plant  foods  used. 

About  1.5  per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel  is  nitroj>en. 

Sulphur  is  an  important  constituent  of  both  protein  and  proto- 
plasm. There  is  practically  always  a  great  abundance  of  sulphur  in 
the  soil.     About  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel  is  sulphur. 

Phosphorus  is  found  in  every  cell  of  every  plant,  but  it  is  especially 
a])undant  in  the  seed.     It  is  of  great  value  because  it : 

1.  Causes  rapid  germination  of  seed. 

2.  Causes  early  ripening. 

3.  Causes  greater  formation  of  seed  in  proportion  to  stem. 

4.  Is  essential  to  protoplasm. 

About  one-third  of  one  per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel  is  phosphorus. 
Potassium  plays  an  important  role  in  the  development  of  plant  life. 
It  seems  to : 

1.  Encourage  carbohydrate  formation. 

2.  Aid  in  transference  of  starch. 

3.  Aid  the  plant  in  resisting  fungus  disease. 

About  one-third  of  one  per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel  is  potassium. 
Calcium,  which  is  fundamental  both  to  plant  and  animal  nutrition : 

1.  Aids  in  the  development  of  root  hairs. 

2.  Aids  in  the  transportation  of  starch. 

3.  Neutralizes  plant  acids. 

4.  Has  a  strengthening  effect  on  cell  walls. 

The  corn  kernel  contains  less  than  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent  of 
calcium. 

Magnesium  is  found  more  particularly  in  the  seed  of  plants.  In 
this  respect,  it  is  the  opposite  of  calcium.  Practically  all  soils  contain 
sufficient  magnesium  for  plant  growth.  About  one-seventh  of  one  per 
cent  of  the  corn  kernel  is  magnesium. 

Iron  is  second  to  oxygen  in  abundance  in  the  earth's  crust.  It  is 
never  a  limiting  factor  in  production,  as  plants  use  only  a  small  amount 
of  it.  Nevertheless,  iron  is  essential  to  chlorophyll  production.  By 
withholding  iron  from  plants,  no  chlorophyll  will  develop,  and  conse- 
quently the  plant  makes  no  natural  growth.  Only  small  traces  of  iron 
are  found  in  the  corn  kernel. 

Of  these  ten  essential  elements,  there  are  two,  phosphorus  and  cal- 
cium (lime)  which  must  be  purchased  and  added  to  the  soils  of  the 
Corn  Belt  to  keep  them  productive.  The  other  eight  elements  are  either 
present  in  abundance  already  or  can  be  maintained  through  certain  nat- 
ural processes. 


CIIArTER  :}1 

BOTANICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CORN 

/^ORN,  like  other  grasses,  has  a  fibrous  root  system.     The  three  types 
of  corn  roots  are    (1)    temporary,    (2)    permanent  and    (3)   brace 
roots. 


Illustrating  how  depth  of  planting  influences  length  of  mesocotyl  and  why  the 
permanent  roots  (p)  start  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  no  matter 
how  deep  the  kernel  is  planted.  The  temporary  roots  (t)  lose  their  impor- 
tance after  the  permanent  roots  are  well  established,  except  possibly  in  the 
case  of  Hopi  corn. 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


171 


The  temporary  root  system  is  composed  of  the  roots  which  are 
pushed  downward  from  the  tip  of  the  kernel  when  it  first  sprouts.  Dur- 
ing the  first  two  or  three  weeks  after  germination  the  temporary  roots 
furnish  most  of  the  food  which  the  young  plant  obtains  from  the  soil. 


The  root  system  of  corn  is  much  more  extensive  than  most  people  suspect. 
This  picture  shows  only  a  part  of  the  roots.  The  great  mass  of  fine  roots 
are  lost  on  digging.     (Courtesy  of  Iowa  Station.) 


Brace  roots. 


172 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


Later  on,  tliese  roots  either  rot  away 
from  the  plant  or  become  unim- 
portant except  in  the  case  of  Hopi 
corn,  -which  seems  to  rely  on  the  tem- 
porary roots  to  bring-  up  moisture 
from  the  deeper  layers  of  the  soil. 

If  the  young-  corn  plant,  two  or 
three  weeks  after  germination,  is 
dug  up.  it  will  be  noted  that  between 
the  kernel  and  the  green  stem  above 
ground  is  a  slender  white  stem.  This 
is  known  as  the  mesocotyl.  In  the 
case  of  corn  planted  one  inch  deep, 
the  mesocotyl  is  about  one  inch  long, 
whereas  in  the  case  of  corn  planted 
twelve  inches  deep  (Hopi  corn  is 
often  planted  this  deep),  the  meso- 
cotyl is  twelve  inches  long.  The  tem- 
porary roots  start  from  below  the 
mesocotyl  and  go  downward,  where- 
as the  permanent  roots  start  from 
just  above  the  mesocotvl. 


Corn  occasionally  sends  out  branch- 
es from  the  upper  nodes.  This  is 
common  in  teosinte  and  certain 
types  of  tropica]  corn. 


Permanent  Roots 

The  first  two,  three  or  even  four 
nodes  of  the  mature  corn  plant  are 
separated  by  very  short  inter-nodes  and  are  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  is  from  these  nodes  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  that 
the  permanent  roots  start  out  laterally  from  the  nodes  and  then  go 
downward  to  a  depth  of  as  great  as  five  or  six  feet.  The  large,  strong 
permanent  roots  are  concentrated  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  plant 
and  only  the  small,  fibrous  roots  reach  the  greater  depth. 
Brace  Roots 

Brace  roots  differ  from  the  i)ermanent  roots  in  that  they  come  from 
the  first  two  or  three  nodes  above  ground.  In  ''down"  corn  or  certain 
tropical  varieties  the  brace  roots  may  come  out  from  nodes  as  high  up 
as  the  fifth  or  sixth.  Brace  roots  from  the  first  node  or  two  above 
ground  are  of  very  real  help  in  maintaining  an  upright  corn  plant,  but 
it  is  doubtful  if  brace  roots  from  the  higher  nodes  serve  any  useful 
purpose.  Funk  says  they  are  as.sociated  with  diseased  corn.  The  stem 
of  each  inter-node  is  hollow  on  one  side  and  it  is  on  this  hollow  side 
that  the  leaf  comes  out.  From  the  lower  nodes  on  this  hollow  side  there 
usually  develops  a  small  bud  which  does  not  amount  to  much  except  in 
the  cases  of  the  nodes  Avhich  bear  ears. 

The  roots  of  the  corn  plant : 

1.  Support  and  anchor  the  stalk. 

2.  Absorb  plant  food  (soluble  salts  and  water). 


BOTANICAL   CHARA(TERISTI(;S  17:! 

3.  Excrete  organic  substances  (such  as  carbon  dioxide,  mineral  salts  and 
organic  acids). 

4.  Render  plant  food  soluble  by  action  of  the  excretions. 

Root  growth  is  increased  when  the  following  conditions  are  present : 

1.  Large  supply  of  oxygen. 

2.  Favorable  temperature. 

3.  Plenty  of  moisture. 

4.  Good  soil  tilth. 

5.  Abundant  available  plant  food. 

Stalks 

The  stalks  of  corn  vary  in  height  from  one  and  one-half  to  about 
thirty  feet.  Some  of  the  small,  early  popcorns  will  develop  ears  when 
only  one  and  one-half  feet  high.  Silage  corns  often  make  a  growth  of 
eighteen  feet. 

The  stalk  is  made  up  of  nodes  or  joints,  usually  eight  to  twenty  in 
number.  The  average  number  of  nodes  is  about  fourteen.  In  typical 
dent  varieties  of  the  central  Corn  Belt,  the  eighth  node  as  a  ride  bears 
the  ear.  The  node  is  the  origin  of  all  lateral  outgrow^ths,  such  as  roots, 
branches,  leaves  and  ears.  The  portion  of  the  stalk  between  the  nodes  is 
called  the  inter-node.  The  longer  inter-nodes  are  toward  the  top  and 
the  shorter  toward  the  base 

In  cross-section,  the  stalk  is  made  up  of  four  parts,  as  follows : 

1.  The  epidermis,  a  thin  transparent  tissue,  covers  the  outer  part  of  the 
stalk.  It  is  impervious  to  moisture  and  protects  the  stalk  from  insects  and 
disease. 

2.  Just  beneath  the  epidermis  is  the  stem  wall — a  woody  layer,  the  hard, 
stiff  portion  of  the  stalk,  made  up  of  large  numbers  of  fibro-vascular  bundles, 
closely  packed  together.  These  bundles,  stiffened  by  silica  deposits,  make  the 
stem  wall  the  "backbone"  of  the  plant. 

3.  The  center  cavity  of  the  stalk  is  filled  with  pith.  It  is  a  soft,  spongy 
mass  of  tissue  and  serves  as  a  storehouse  for  moisture  and  food.  The  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  in  the  pith  are  separated  by  large  masses  of  pith. 

4.  The  fibro-vascular  bundles  are  channels  for  the  transportation  of 
plant  food.  They  are  found  mostly  in  the  woody  stem  wall  and  extend  from 
the  roots  up  through  the  stalk  to  the  leaves  and  ears.  They  carry  mineral 
plant  food  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves  and  manufactured  plant  food  to  the 
ears  and  stalk.    A  little  food  is  manufactured  in  the  stem  as  well  as  the  leaves. 

Length  growth  takes  place  just  above  the  nodes,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  stalk.  The  growth  may  be  likened  to  a  telescope.  As  a  telescope 
unfolds,  so  does  the  corn  stalk  unfold.  Therefore,  the  statement  that 
we  can  "see  corn  grow  over-night"  is  often  made.  Diameter  growth 
takes  place  from  the  inside  and  not  by  added  layers  as  in  a  tree.  This 
type  of  diameter  growth  is  called  endogeneous. 

Suckers 
Suckers,  or  tillers,  are  branches  which  come  from  the  nodes  just 
at  or  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.     The  tendency  to  sucker  is 
influenced  by  the  variety,  soil  conditions,  rate  and  method  of  planting. 


174 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROWING 


A  large  amount  of  available  plant  food  will  produce  more  suckers  than 
soil  in  poor  condition.  Plentiful  moisture  increases  the  number  of 
suckers. 

Corn  planted  one  kernel  to  the  hill  will  send  out  more  suckers  than 
when  planted  at  the  rate  of  five  kernels.  Suckers  have  their  own  root 
system  and  often  bear  ears.  However,  the  ears  as  a  rule  are  inferior 
to  those  upon  the  main  stalk,  often  being  borne  on  the  tassel.  It  does 
not  pay  to  pull  off  the  suckers.  At  the  Nebraska  station,  they  found 
that  pulling  off  suckers  cut  the  yield  greatly. 

Leaves 

The  leaves  on  a  corn  plant  are  arranged  alternately,  conceal  the 
groo\'ed  sides  of  the  stalk,  and  are  usually  twelve  to  eighteen  in  number. 
The  wav3'  margin,  the  result  of  the  outside  growing  faster  than  the  mid- 
rib, adds  surface  and  flexibility  to  the  leaf.  The  corn  leaf  is  made  up  of 
three  parts,  as  follows : 

1.  Leaf  sheath.  It  comes  from  the  node,  and  clasps  or  surrounds  the 
stalk. 

2.  Blade,  often  incorrectly  called  the  leaf.  It  is  composed  of  the  mid- 
rib, veins  (parallel  to  mid-rib)  and  intracellular  tissue. 

3.  Ligule,  located  at  the  hinge  between  the  sheath  and  the  blade.  It  is 
a  collar  which  prevents  water,  dirt  and  insects  from  running  down  the  sheath 
and  stalk.  At  either  end  of  the  ligule  is  situated  the  auricle,  or  lobe-like  por- 
tion. It  is  the  light-green,  wavy,  triangular  portion  of  the  blade.  It  turns 
the  water  down  the  stalk  onto  the  leaf  below. 

The  leaves  use  the  energy  of  the  sunlight  to  manufacture  plant  food 

from    water,    minerals    and    carbon 
dioxide,  and  give  off  excess  moisture. 

<P  Flowers 

The  male  and  female  flowers  of 
corn  are  located  in  spikelets  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  plant.  This 
flower  arrangement  makes  cross  pol- 
lination and  fertilization  the  general 
•ule  in  corn.  It  is  estimated  that  not 
more  than  five  per  cent  of  corn 
grown  under  field  conditions  is 
selfed  ("pollen  falls  on  silk  and  fer- 
tilizes ovule  of  the  same  plant). 
Kiesselbach  found  less  than  one  per 
cent  of  self-fertilization  under  ordi- 
nary Nebraska  conditions. 

The  male  flowers  are  located  in 
er,  which  has  not  yet  opened  enough  spikelets  on  the  tassel  of  the  plant. 
!„Vj;°fTorr;"?i  ZTX.°J.  S5  Each  .spikelet  eontain.s  two  flowers 
palea.  and  each  llower  has  three  anthers. 


Staminate 


male   spikelet 


borne 


by  the  corn  tassel,     (a)  Upper  flow- 


BOTANICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


175 


Avhich  contain  the  golden  colored  pollen.  There  are  about  2,500  pollen 
grains  in  each  anther,  and  there  are  about  7,500  anthers  in  each  tassel. 
Therefore,  each  tassel  may  furnish  about  20,000,000  pollen  grains.  This 
number  is  far  in  excess  of  the  pollen  required,  because  only  one  pollen 
grain  is  needed  to  fertilize  a  flower  and  develop  a  kernel,  and  an  ear  re- 
quires onty  from  800  to  1,000  pollen  grains  to  fertilize  the  female  flowers. 


Female  or  pistillate  corn  flower  (green  ear  shoot  without  husks,  but  with  silks) 
on  the  left.     Male  or  staminate  corn  flower  on  the  right. 

There  are  therefore  20,000  pollen  grains  produced  for  each  female  flower. 
The  pollen  is  carried  by  the  wund,  and  occasionally  pollen  may  be  blown 
half  a  mile.  There  is,  however,  much  less  mixture  between  fields  than 
is  commonly  thought.  Pollen  ordinarily  retains  its  vitality  for  about 
twenty-four  hours.     It  may  be  killed  in  a  few  hours  by  heat  and  drouth. 

The  tassel,  as  a  rule,  emerges  before  the  silks  do,  and  so  pollen  is 
available  from  one  to  three  days  before  it  is  needed.  Kiesselbach  says : 
"Extensive   observations   have   shown   that   in   general   the   pollinating 


176 


CORN  AND  COKX-GROWIXG 


])eriod  of  the  tassel  materially  overlaps  the  silking-  period.  Self-pollina- 
tion might  occur  extensively  were  it  not  for  the  overwhelming  prepon- 
derance of  foreign  pollen  scattered  promiscuously  through  the  air.'' 

The  female  flowers  are  located  in  pairs  on  the  cob.  Only  one 
flower  of  each  pair  develops.  An  exception  is  the  Country  Gentleman 
variety  of  sweet  corn,  in  Avhich  both  flowers  develop.  An  average  ear 
of  corn  Avill  have  about  800  developed  female  flowers.     Each  of  the 


Illustrating  how  each  unfertilized  ovule  on  the  young  shoot  has  a  silk   (style) 
growing  from  it. 

flowers  sends  out  a  silk  (style),  and  it  takes  from  two  to  four  days  to 
send  out  all  the  silks.  The  kernels  near  the  butt  end  of  the  ear  send 
out  their  silks  first.  The  end  (stigma)  as  well  as  the  surface  of  the  silk 
is  hairy  and  mucilaginous,  to  aid  in  catching  the  pollen  grains.  These 
silks  are  receptive  to  pollen  before  they  emerge  from  the  husk,  and  if 
they  are  not  fertilized,  they  remain  receptive  for  about  two  weeks. 
Fertilization 
Kiesselbach  says :  ' '  Every  kernel  has  its  own  silk  and  must  be 
fertilized  separate^'.  In  the  process  of  fertilization,  pollen  falling  on 
the  silk  germinates  and  grows  a  pollen  tube  through  the  silk  to  the 
kernel,  to  which  it  conducts  the  two  sperm  nuclei.  One  of  these  nuclei 
fuses  with  the  egg  nucleus  to  form  the  initial  embryo  nucleus,  (true 
fertilization),  and  the  other  with  the  two  polar  nuclei,  forming  the  initial 
endosperm  nucleus  (causing  xenia.  See  Chapter  34).  T,his  entire 
process  has  been  found  to  be  completed  Avithin  approximately  twenty- 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


17' 


four  hours'  time.  Fertilization  is 
reflected  in  the  discoloration  and 
drying'  of  the  silks  in  from  forty-two 
to  seventy-two  hours  after  pollina- 
tion." 

Ear  Compared  With  Sucker 

The  ear,  including  the  shank  and 
husks,  may  be  likened  to  a  branch 
or  sucker  of  the  main  stalk.  Each 
ear  shank  contains  as  many  nodes 
as  the  stalk  bears  above  the  ear.  The 
nodes  of  the  shank  occasionally  bear 
several  small  ears  in  addition  to  the 
main  ear.  Each  husk  represents  the 
leaf  sheath,  and  the  streamer  often 
found  toward  the  top  of  the  husk  is 
comparable  to  the  leaf  blade.  The 
cob  is  analogous  to  the  tassel,  in  that 
it  is  a  central  spike  which  bears 
floAvers.  However,  except  in  the 
case  of  freak  ears,  the  cob  has  no 

lateral  branches.  Theoretically,  each  Typical  kernel  of  dent  corn 
row  of  corn  corresponds  to  a  spike 
and  the  entire  ear  is  a  combination 
of  a  number  of  spikes  which  have 
grown  together. 

As  a  rule,  Corn  Belt  varieties 
mature  but  one  good  ear  of  corn 
upon  one  stalk.  Prolific  varieties 
mature  several  ears  upon  one  stalk. 

Kernel 

The  kernel  is  ripe  in  the  ordinary  season  about  fifty  days  after 
fertilization.  Twenty  days  after  fertilization  the  kernel  is  ripe  enough 
to  germinate,  although  it  has  only  reached  the  milk  stage  by  this  time. 

Stages  of  ripening  are  : 

Milk  stage — starch  in  the  form  of  a  fluid  (about  twenty  days  after  fertili- 
zation). 

Soft  dough — starch  soft  and  cheesy  (about  thirty-five  days  after  fertiii- 
zation). 

Hard  dough — starch  hard  and  fjrm  (about  forty-two  days  after  fertili- 
zation). 

Ripe  (about  fifty  days  after  fertilization). 

The  kernel  may  be  divided  into  six  parts,  as  follows : 

1.  Hull — the  thin  covering  which  encloses  the  entire  grain.  The  hull  it! 
nearly  colorless  in  commercial  varieties  except  in  red  and  calico  corn. 

2.  Aleurone  layer — a  thin  layer  just  beneath  the  hull.  This  layer  is 
colorless  and  difficult  to  distinguish  except  in  blue  corn  and  a  rare  dull-red 
type.     The  red  aleurone  type  is  never  grown  commercially. 


(1)  Aleu- 
rone layer,  which  is  colorless  and 
almost  impossible  to  detect  with  the 
naked  eye,  except  in  blue  and  a  rare 
type  of  red  corn;  (2)  horny  or  hard 
starch,  which  is  colorless  except  in 
yellow  corn;  (3)  soft  starch,  which 
is  white  in  all  colors  of  corn;  4,  5 
and  6  together  are  the  germ,  4  being 
the  scutellum,  5  the  plumule  and  6 
the  radicle;   (7)  tip  cap. 


178  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

3.  Soft  starch — large,  loose  starch  cells  that  occupy  the  crown  and  often 
the  back  and  a  part  of  the  germ  end  of  the  kernel.  It  is  often  called  white 
starch.  Tn  soft  or  flour  corn,  nearly  all  the  kernel  except  the  germ  is  soft 
starch. 

4.  Hard  starch — small,  compact  starch  cells  and  protein  bodies  occupying; 
the  sides  and  back  of  the  kernel.  It  is  translucent,  whereas  soft  starch  is 
opaque.  In  flint  corn  nearly  all  of  the  kernel  except  the  germ  is  hard  starch. 
The  color  of  yellow  corn  is  found  solely  in  the  hard  starch,  which  means  that 
yellow  flint  varieties  are  usually  far  deeper  in  color  than  either  the  soft  or 
dent  varieties.  The  hard  and  soft  starch  together  make  up  what  is  commonly 
called  the  endosperm. 

5.  Germ — oily  portion  occupying  most  of  the  front  side  of  the  kernel. 
Composed  of  three  parts,  plumule,  radicle  and  scutellum  (or  cotyledon).  The 
plumule  develops  into  the  stem  sprout  and  permanent  roots.  The  radicle  de- 
velops into  the  temporary  roots.  The  scutellum  absorbs  changes  and  transfers 
plant  food  for  the  seedling. 

6.  Tip  cap — affords  attachment  of  the  kernel  to  the  cob  and  protection 
to  the  germ.  It  is  usually  retained  by  the  kernel  in  shelling.  When  broken 
off,  it  exposes  the  black  covering  of  the  germ.  This  covering  is  natural  and 
not  an  unsoundness.  Botanically,  the  tip  cap  is  a  bract  which  in  the  ancestors 
of  corn  almost  completely  enclosed  the  kernel. 


CHAPTEK  82 
CORN  BREEDING 

CPECIAL  corn  breeding  methods  do  not  pay  on  the  average  farm. 

Most  farmers  who  have  a  good,  acclimated  variety  are  jnstified  in 
doing  nothing  more  than  picking  well-matnred,  solid  ears,  free  from 
mold,  every  fall  before  frost.  In  addition,  it  may  be  well  to  see  that 
the  ears  come  from  stiff  stalks  and  are  borne  at  a  convenient  height  from 
the  ground.     Suggestions  along  this  line  are  given  in  Chapter  5. 

Every  few  years,  however,  it  is  a  good  plan  on  one  side  of  the  field 
to  grow  side  by  side  with  the  home  variety  of  corn  another  sort  which 
has  a  well-fonnded  reputation  for  high  yielding  power.  If  this  sup- 
posedly high  yielding  corn  from  the  outside  does  unusually  well,  it  may 
be  a  good  plan  to  start  all  over  with  it  or  to  mix  it  with  the  home  corn. 
No  special  methods  are  necessary'  in  this  kind  of  corn  breeding.  Prac- 
tical farmers  have  followed  this  general  plan  for  fifty  years,  and  as  yet 
there  is  no  sure  proof  that  a  better  method  exists. 

Four  general  methods  of  corn  breeding  have  been  practiced  by  corn 
breeders.  These  four  methods  are,  (1)  selection,  (2)  ear-row  breeding, 
(3)  cross  breeding  and  (4)  inbreeding. 

Selection 

Nearly  all  commercial  varieties  of  corn  have  been  formed  by  selec- 
tion preceded  oftentimes  b}^  a  certain  amount  of  cross  breeding.  The 
famous  Illinois  experiments  started  by  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  in  1896  and 
maintained  for  many  years  by  Louis  H.  Smith,  have  demonstrated  that 
unusual  changes  in  type  may  be  obtained  by  long-continued  selection. 
After  eight  or  ten  years  of  selection  for  low  ears  at  the  Illinois  station, 
they  obtained  a  strain  which  on  the  average  carried  its  ears  less  than  two 
feet  from  the  ground,  whereas  another  strain  developed  from  the  same 
original  Leaming,  but  selected  for  high  ears,  carried  its  ears  more  than 
seven  feet  from  the  ground.  After  twenty  years,  a  strain  of  corn 
selected  for  high  oil  contained  over  ten  per  cent  on  the  average,  as 
contrasted  with  two  per  cent  for  the  strain  selected  for  low  oil.  In  like 
manner,  a  high  protein  strain  containing  sixteen  per  cent  protein  was 
developed  and  a  low  protein  strain  containing  six  or  seven  per  cent. 
In  every  case  but  one,  however,  these  selections  resulted  in  reduced  yield- 
ing power.  The  one  exception  was  the  strain  selected  for  two  ears,  which, 
at  last  reports  from  the  Illinois  station,  was  still  yielding  about  as  well 
as  Reid  corn.  The  other  selections  have  yielded  on  the  average  only 
about  three-fourths  as  well  as  Reid  corn.  It  seems  that  selection  for 
one  particular  thing  results  after  a  time  in  close  breeding  and  that  this 
reduces  the  vigor. 


180 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROAVTNG 


Most  of  our  early  corn  breeders  assumed  that  a  moderately  l&v^e 
ear  with  a  deep  kernel  and  a  well-filled  butt  and  tip  was  fundamental 
to  yielding-  power.  They  selected  for  this  one  thing-  above  everything 
else  in  developing  our  modern  types  of  corn.  In  all  probability,  the 
pioneer  corn  breeders,  by  following  this  method,  brought  about  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  the  yielding  power  of  the  corn  which  they  had 
received  from  the  Indians.  It  has  been  found,  however,  by  repeated 
experiments  during  the  past  twenty  years  that  in  our  modern  Corn  Belt 
varieties,  no  ear  character  is  so  very  closelv  associated  with  vield.     At 


Low  ear  and  high 


ir  corn  at  Illinois  station,  developed  by  selection  from  same 
original  Learning. 


the  Ohio  station,  they  selected  for  shallow  grained  corn  year  after  year 
for  a  number  of  years,  but  the  yield  of  shelled  corn  per  acre  was  not 
impaired  thereby.  Seed  from  ears  with  bare  tips  seems  to  yield  just 
as  well  as  seed  from  ears  with  well-filled  tips.  By  selection,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  develop  corn  of  beautiful  appearance,  but  it  seems  to  be  very 
difficult  to  develop  corn  of  outstanding  yielding  power.  So  far  as 
we  know  now,  very  few  of  the  stalk  or  ear  characteristics  which  we  can 
see  with  the  eye  are  at  all  closely  related  to  yield  in  our  ordinary  varie- 
ties of  Corn  Belt  corn.  Of  course,  it  is  obvious  that  in  the  case  of  a  corn 
which  is  too  late  for  the  season  that  one  of  the  things  which  must  be 
done  is  to  pick  for  a  smaller  ear  and  stalk,  and  vice  versa.  But  in  the 
case  of  a  well  acclimated  strain,  no  method  of  selection  has  yet  been 
found  which  has  so  very  much  effect  on  yielding  power.     It  has  been 


CORN  BREEDING  181 

found  possible  to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  ear  and  stalk  considerably 
but  the  improvement  of  the  yielding  power  by  any  method  of  selection 
has  been  fonnd  to  be  very  difficult. 

Ear-Row  Breeding 

In  the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the  opening 
years  of  the  tAventieth,  the  Illinois  and  Ohio  stations  developed  the 
' '  ear-row ' '  method  of  corn  breeding.  The  theory  of  this  method  seemed 
so  sound  that  every  one  had  great  hope  that  the  inherent  yielding  power 
of  corn  subjected  to  this  method  of  breeding  would  be  greatly  increased. 

To  begin  with,  fifty  or  a  hundred  good  ears  of  a  high  yielding  strain 
vv'ere  picked  out.  These  were  planted  an  ear  to  a  row,  part  of  the  seed 
from  each  ear  being  saved  for  planting  the  year  following.  Each  row 
was  weighed  up  separately  in  the  fall,  and  it  was  invariably  found  that 
some  of  the  good  rows  would  yield  about  twice  as  much  as  the  poor 
rows,  and  ten  or  twenty  bushels  per  acre  more  than  the  average  of  the 
field.  The  plan  was  then  to  go  back  to  the  remnant  seed  of  the  fifteen 
or  twenty  ears  Avhich  had  produced  these  high  yielding  rows  and  plant 
them  the  following  year  in  a  small  plot  by  themselves,  an  ear  to  the 
row.  It  was  supposed  that  seed  saved  from  this  plot  would  yield  much 
more  than  the  original  corn.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  results  were  not 
so  very  encouraging.  This  was  ascribed  to  inbreeding,  and  the  method 
was  modified  to  provide  for  detasseling  of  alternate  rows  and  saving 
seed  only  from  the  detasseled  plants.  Much  time  and  thought  was 
spent  on  developing  fine  points  in  the  method.  In  recent  years,  very 
little  has  been  said  about  the  ear-row  method  because  no  outstandingly 
high  yielding  strain  of  corn  has  been  developed  by  it.  Here  and  there, 
practical  farmers  have  used  the  method  for  a  short  time,  but  they  have 
almost  always  dropped  it  after  a  year  or  two.  At  the  Nebraska  station 
they  found,  after  fourteen  years  of  continuous  ear-row  breeding  with 
Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  that  the  yielding  power  had  been  decreased  about 
one-third  of  a  bushel  per  acre  from  the  regular  Hogue  handled  in  the 
ordinary  way.  By  crossing  four  of  the  high  yielding  strains  isolated 
by  the  ear-row  method,  the  yield  was  increased  about  one  and  one-half 
bushels  per  acre,  as  an  average  of  seven  years '  tests.  It  would  seem  that 
scarcely  one  farmer  in  a  thousand  is  justified  in  making  any  effort  to 
improve  his  corn  by  the  use  of  the  ear-row  method.  Even  in  the  hands 
of  expert  corn  breeders  the  ear-row  method  of  increasing  corn  yields 
has  not  proved  so  very  satisfactory. 

Cross  Breeding 

About  1910,  a  number  of  the  experimental  corn  breeders  became 
temporarily  enthusiastic  over  the  possibilities  of  improving  yielding 
power  by  crossing  two  varieties.  By  planting  two  varieties  in  alternat- 
ing rows  and  detasseling  the  one,  it  is  easily  possible  to  obtain  cross-bred 
seed  to  plant  the  year  following.     At  the  Connecticut  and  Minnesota 


182 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


stations,  they  have  found  that  crosses  between  a  high  yiehling-  flint 
variety  and  a  high  yielding  dent  will  often  yield  more  than  either  parent. 
At  the  Michigan  experiment  station,  in  the  late  seventies,  and  at  the 
Illinois  experiment  station,  in  1892,  they  found  that  the  cross-bred 
seed  yielded  several  bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  higher  yielding  of 
the  two  parents.  More  recent  and  complete  experiments,  however,  at 
the  Iowa  and  Nebraska  stations,  imlicate  that  very  few  crosses  will  yield 
as  well  as  Reid  Yellow  Dent  in  Iowa  or  Hogne  in  Nebraska.  As  a  four- 
year  average,  the  highest  yielding  cross-bred  corn  at  the  Nebraska  sta- 
tion AA'as  a  cross  of  Reid  and  Hogue  which  yielded  45  bushels  per  acre 


Crossing  flint  and  dent.     The  kernel  of  the  first 
generation  hybrid  is  in  the  center. 


as  compared  with  45.2  bushels  for  pure  Hogue  and  44.9  bushels  for  Reid. 
In  one  year  the  cross  outyielded  the  Reid  by  nine  bushels  and  the  Hogue 
by  four  bushels,  but  in  the  other  three  years  the  pure  parents  had  the 
advantage.  Thirteen  different  crosses  at  the  Nebraska  station  yielded 
as  a  four-year  average,  1.6  bushels  per  acre  less  than  the  average  of 
their  parents.  At  the  Iowa  station,  the  results  have  been  much  the  same, 
although  it  was  found  that  a  medium  late  flint  from  Argentina,  crossed 
Avith  Reid,  oftentimes  yielded  more  than  the  pure  Reid.  The  bulk  of  the 
evidence  indicates  that  crossing  two  dent  varieties  is  not  ordinarily  worth 
while,  but  that  the  crossing  of  flints  and  dents  may  have  some  possibili- 
ties. It  seems  that  the  average  Corn  Belt  farmer  will  not  find  it  worth 
while  to  produce  cross-bred  seed  himself,  and,  unless  some  new  and 
startling  combinations  are  found,  it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  will  pay  him 
to  buy  cross-bred  seed  from  anyone  else. 

Inbreeding 

The  newest  method  of  corn  breeding  is  based  on  developing  inbred 
strains  of  corn  by  putting  the  pollen  of  a  plant  on  the  silk  of  the  same 
plant  and  continuing  this  "selfing"  generation  after  generation  until 
after  four  or  more  generations  absolutely  distinct  inbred  types  have  been 
produced.  The  inbreds  as  usually  developed  by  this  method  yield  about 
twenty  bushels  per  acre  under  the  same  conditions  that  ordinary  corn 
yields  fifty  bushels.     When  two  unrelated  inbreds  are  crossed,  however. 


CORN  BREEDING 


188 


startling  results  usually 
follow.  At  the  Nebraska 
station,  where  all  other 
methods  of  corn  breed- 
ing have  failed  to  pro- 
duce a  higher  yield  than 
Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  as 
grown  in  the  ordinary 
way,  it  was  found,  as  a 
four-year  average,  that 
the  cross  of  eight  sets  of 
two  inbreds  each  yielded 
forty-eight  bushels,  as 
compared  to  forty-one 
bushels  for  the  Hogue 
in  the  same  years.  Oc- 
casionally two  inbreds 
do  not  ' '  nick ' '  well,  and 
yield  only  half  as  much 
per  acre  as  the  variety 
from  which  they  were 
derived.  On  examina- 
tion, it  will  generally  be 
found  that  dnbreds  pro- 
ducing such  results  are 
either  closely  related,  or 
have  some  serious  weak- 
ness in  common,  or  are 
weaker  than  the  average 
inbred.  At  the  Con- 
necticut station,  where 
corn  has  been  inbred  for 
a  greater  number  of 
generations  than  any 
place  else  in  the  world, 
it  has  been  found  that 

while  crosses  of  two  inbreds  have  often  yielded  more  than  the 
original  variety,  that  even  higher  yields  were  obtained  by  crossing 
four  inbreds  together  to  produce  a  "double  cross."  This  takes  two 
years.  For  instance,  if  A,  B,  C  and  D  are  the  inbreds,  the  method  is 
to  produce  single  crosses,  AB  and  CD,  the  first  year  and  then  cross  these 
the  following  year  to  produce  double  cross  ABCD.  This  double  crossed 
ABCD  seed,  when  planted,  has  given  exceptionally  good  results  at  the 
Connecticut  station.  The  single  crossed  seeds  produce  plants  and  ears 
which  are  very  uniform,  every  plant  and  ear  looking  almost  exactly 
like  every  other  plant  and  ear.     The  double  crossed  seeds,  however,  pro- 


Crof 


5ing  flint  and  dent.     The  first  generation  liy- 
brid  is  in  the  center. 


]S4 


CORX  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 


Or.  the  left  an  inbred,  Avhich  was  developed  after  five  years  of  selfing.  On  the 
right  inbred  No.  1-6  of  the  Connecticut  Station,  which  has  been  selfed  for 
seventeen  years.  In  the  center  the  cross  of  the  two,  which  is  a  vigorous, 
productive  type,  producing  fully  as  much  as  Reid  corn  and  twice  as  much 
as  either  inbred  parent. 

duce  iilants  and  ears  Avhich  vary  from  one  another  about  as  much  as  is 
the  case  in  the  ordinary  variety.  This  variability  may  account  in  some 
measure  for  the  double  crossed  seed  yieldinu-  more  than  the  single 
crossed. 

Practical  Method  for  Farmers 

What  the  final  practical  outcome  will  be  of  this  new  theory  of  pro- 
ducing inbred  strains  and  then  combining  them  into  single,  double  or 
even  quadruple  crosses,  no  one  can  say.  The  method  looks  promising, 
but  there  are  some  drawbacks.  The  cross  must  be  made  every  year. 
Seed  selected  from  a  high  yielding  single  cross  is  very  disappointing  in 
its  ability  to  yield  the  next  generation.     It  promptly  lap.ses  back  toward 


CORN  BREEDING  185 

its  inbred  form,  and  nsnally  yields  only  about  tliree-t'onrtbs  as  well  as 
the  year  before.  If  this  crossing  of  inbred  strains  is  ever  used  in  a  prac- 
tical Avay,  it  probably  will  be  necessary  for  Corn  Belt  farmers  to  buy 
their  seed  every  year  from  seedsmen  or  seed  associations  which  are  spe- 
cializing- on  this  kind  of  thing.  However,  it  may  be  that  further  experi- 
menting will  demonstrate  that  it  will  be  possible  after  forty  or  fifty  good 
inbreds  have  been  located  which  are  mutually  compatible  to  combine 
them  together  in  the  form  of  a  new  variety,  with  the  result  that  the 
yielding  power  of  this  complex  cross  will  not  slide  downhill  in 
later  years  in  the  same  way  as  a  single  cross  or  a  double  cross.  Just 
what  the  application  of  breeding  and  cross  breeding  inbred  strains  will 
be,  no  one  can  say  with  any  certainty.  It  does  seem  to  be  plain,  how- 
ever, that  this  method  offers  the  best  hope  of  making  any  genuine  prog- 
ress in  corn  breeding.  Nevertheless,  it  is  i)robable  that  not  until  after 
1930  will  this  new  idea  in  corn  breeding  have  gone  far  enough  to  mean 
anything  one  way  or  another  to  the  practical  corn  farmer.  For  the 
time  being,  the  practical  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  save  sound  seed  of  a 
standard  high  yielding  strain  in  the  manner  suggested  in  Chapter  5. 
From  time  to  time,  the  more  experimentally  minded  can  try  out  corn 
which  has  done  well  in  corn  yield  contests  and  also  single  and  double 
crosses  of  inbreds  which  may  be  offered  by  experiment  stations  and  seed 
companies  as  time  goes  on. 


CHAPTER  33 

TECHNIQUE  OF  INBREEDING 

TXBREEDIXG  involves  placing-  live  pollen  of  a  plant  on  the  silks  of  the 
same  plant  and  also  keeping  ont  any  foreign  pollen.  The  customary 
way  of  doing  this  is  to  tie  a  twelve-pound  pinch  bottom  paper  sack  over 
the  tassel  just  before  it  begins  to  shed  pollen.  A  three-pound  paper 
sack  or  a  glacine  bag  (two  and  a  half  by  five  inches  is  a  convenient  size) 
is  slipped  over  the  ear  shoot  as  soon  as  it  is  out  far  enough  so  as  to  hold 
the  bag  on,  and  before  any  silks  have  appeared.     Thump  the  tassel  bag 


h1  method  of  inbreeding, 
into  sack. 


pollen 


to  tell  when  the  pollen  has  started  to  shed.  If  the  silks  are  out  and 
pollen  is  shedding,  take  the  tas.sel  sack  off  and  invert  it  over  the  ear  shoot 
and  tie  it,  allowing  the  bag  to  bend  in  the  middle  Avhile  tying  so  as  to 
avoid  losing  the  pollen.  After  the  tying  is  completed,  straighten  out 
the  bag  and  shake  it  suddenly,  so  that  a  considerable  amount  of  the  pol- 


TECHNIQrE   OF   INBREEDING 


187 


len  in  the  bag  will  fall  on  the  silks  enclosed  in  the  bag.  In  a  week  or 
two,  especially  if  there  has  been  a  rain,  the  ear  shoot  will  have  grown 
so  much  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  loosen  the  string  holding  the  bag  on. 

New  Method 

In  1922,  a  new  technique  of  inbreeding  was  devised  by  Merle  T. 
Jenkins,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is  known 
as  the  bottle  method,  and  has  several  advantages  for  people  who  are 
inbreeding  more  than  100  plants  a  year.  With  the  bottle  method,  the 
ear  shoots  are  covered  up  in  just  the  same  way  as  with  the  old-fashioned 
method,  but  the  tassels  are  not  covered  at  all.  When  the  silks  are  out 
and  the  tassel  has  begun  to  shed,  the  tassel  is  pulled  out  and  put  in  a 
twelve-pound  pinch-bottom  paper  sack  and  the  base  of  the  tassel  is  placed 
in  a  one  or  two-ounce  bottle  filled  with  water  and  tied  to  the  corn  stalk 
at  the  same  place  as  the  ear  shoot  comes  out.  The  paper  sack  encloses 
both  the  ear  shoot  and  tassel  and  is  held  in  place  by  a  paper  clip  or  a 


Illustrating  Jenkins'  bottle  method  of  inbreeding  corn.  On  left,  glacine  bag 
placed  over  ear-shoot  before  silk  appears.  In  middle,  bag  removed,  silk  and 
tip  of  ear-shoot  cut  off  and  bottle  attached.  On  right,  twelve-pound  paper 
sack  with  tassel  and  ear-shoot  inside  of  it.  Tassel  is  kept  alive  and  shed- 
ding pollen  for  a  day  or  two  by  water  in  the  bottle.  In  the  meantime,  the  silks 
have  come  out  again.    (Courtesy  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


string.  The  silks  of  the  tassel  are  cut  back  together  wdth  the  tips  of 
the  husks  for  an  inch,  or  even  two  inches,  just  before  the  twelve-pound 
sack  with  its  enclosed  tassel  is  put  over  it.  A  day  or  two  later,  the 
silks  groAv  out  again  and  the  water  in  the  little  bottle  has  kept  the  tassel 
alive  so  that  it  is  still  ready  to  furnish  pollen  when  the  silks  are  ready 


188  CORN  AND  CORN  GROWING 

a<i"ain.  The  Ijottle  is  most  quickly  tied  to  the  stalk  by  means  of  22-yaug'e 
copper  -wire,  such  as  can  be  bought  from  a  radio  supply  house.  Several 
hundred  bottles  can  be  prepared  in  advance  by  twisting  a  foot  of  the 
copper  wire  around  the  neck  of  each  in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  two 
ends  about  four  inches  long  to  twist  around  the  stalk.  The  bottles  are 
carried  to  the  field  in  a  water  bucket.  The  bottle  method  appears  more 
difficult  and  complicated  than  the  old-fashioned  way,  but  in  actual  prac- 
tice is  much  more  rapid.  Two  men  can  inbreed  forty  to  sixty  plants 
an  hour.  One  very  great  additional  advantage  is  that  rain  often  drove 
water  into  T:he  tassel  bags  used  in  the  old-fashioned  method,  making  it 
necessary  to  do  a  lot  of  work  in  replacing  them,  and  sometimes  making 
it  im]iossible  to  inbreed  certain  plants  at  all. 

Growth  of  Tassels  and  Silks 
Follo^\•ing  are  some  facts  about  the  flowering  habits  of  our  typical 
Gorn  Belt  stalk  of  corn,  which  may  be  worth  while  to  anyone  who  is 
expecting  to  do  some  inbreeding : 

1.  From  the  time  the  tassel  first  appears  until  the  first  pollen  is  shed  is 
usually  about  a  week. 

2.  Silks  usually  appear  two  or  three  days  after  pollen  shedding  first 
begins,  although  there  are  occasional  plants  whose  silks  come  out  a  day  or 
two  in  advance  of  the  pollen. 

3.  Pollen  shedding  continues  for  about  a  week,  although  a  few  plants 
produce  tassels  which  will  continue  to  shed  for  ten  or  twelve  days. 

4.  With  a  moist  atmosphere  and  a  rather  low  temperature,  corn  pollen 
may  live  two  or  three  days,  but  with  temperature  and  humidity  as  it  usually 
is  in  the  ordinary  corn  field,  nearly  all  of  the  pollen  dies  within  twenty-four 
hours  after  it  leaves  the  tassel. 

5.  Silks  are  receptive  to  pollen  for  two  weeks  or  even  longer  after  they 
first  appear.  If  they  are  not  fertilized,  they  may  grow  to  a  length  of  ten  or 
twelve  inches,  although  in  the  case  of  some  plants  the  unfertilized  silks  make 
very  little  more  growth  than  the  fertilized.  After  a  pollen  grain  falls  on  a 
silk,  it  grows  with  great  rapidity,  germinating  and  sending  a  pollen  tube 
through  seven  or  eight  inches  of  silk  to  the  ovule  (unfertilized  corn  kernel) 
within  twenty-four  hours. 

6.  If  a  tassel  is  pulled  before  it  begins  to  shed  pollen,  it  will  rarely  live 
to  shed,  even  though  it  is  placed  in  water.  However,  after  a  tassel  has  begun  to 
shed  it  may  be  pulled  and  continue  to  produce  viable  pollen  for  a  day,  even 
though  it  is  not  placed  in  water. 

7.  There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  habits  of  different  corn  plants, 
but  the  typical  plant  acts  about  as  described  in  the  foregoing. 


CHAPTER  34 

HEREDITY  IN  CORN 

CCIEXTISTS  have  probably  done  more  fundamental  work  Avitli  the 
lieredity  of  corn  than  with  any  other  plant  or  animal,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Drosophila  (fruit  fly).  Practically  none  of  this  scien- 
tific work  has  .yet  been  of  practical  value,  although  inbreeding  and  the 
crossing  of  inbred  strains  (described  in  Chapter  32)  promises  eventually 
to  be  of  very  real  importance. 

Mendelian  Characters 

Most  of  the  corn  heredity  work  has  centered  around  the  problem  of 
finding  which  characters  are  Mendelian  dominants  and  which  iMendelian 
rtMM'ssives.     More  than  one  hundred  IMendelian  characters  have  already 


Floral  abnormalities.  Branched  ear  and  ears  bearing  tassels.  Most  freaks  of 
this  sort  are  Mendelian  recessives,  which  are  found  to  some  extent  in  every 
commercial  corn  field,  but  which  do  not  often  get  a  chance  to  express  them- 
selves. 


been  discovered,  and  by  1935  several  hundred  more  will  undoubtedly 
be  worked  out.  Many  of  these  characters  are  freaks  which  so  affect  the 
plant  that  it  does  not  have  the  capacity  of  producing  an  ear  which  a 
farmer  would  save  for  seed.  In  spite  of  this,  they  are  found  to  some 
extent  in  nearly  all  corn  fields.  Thej^  seem  especially  likely  to  be  found 
in  rather  large  numbers  on  those  farms  where  a  special  effort  has  been 
made  to  breed  a  high  vielding  strain  of  corn  bv  the  ear-row  method. 


190  CORN  AND  C0RX-C4R0WING 

One  of  the  commonest  of  freaks  is  a  white  stripe  running  through  the 
leaves.  A  plant  of  this  sort  when  inbred  and  the  seed  planted  pro- 
duces plants  all  of  Avhich  are  affected  with  striped  leaves.  But  if  tin- 
silks  of  a  striped-leaved  plant  are  fertilized  Avith  pollen  from  a  normal 
plant,  and  the  seeds  produced  are  planted,  the  result  w411  usually  he 
plants  all  of  which  are  normal.  Occasionally,  a  plant  which  appears 
normal  carries  the  striped  character  in  one-half  of  its  pollen  grains,  and 
when  the  pollen  of  such  a  normal  plant  is  used  on  the  silks  of  the  striped 
plant  the  result  will  be  plants  one-half  of  which  carry  striped  leaves  and 
one-half  of  M^hich  are  normal.  Normal  plants  which  are  produced  in 
this  way  bear  pollen  one-half  of  which  carries  the  striped-leaf  factor  and 
one-half  of  which  are  normal.  Also,  one-half  the  ovules  or  unfertilized 
corn  kernels  carry  the  striped  leaf  factor  and  will  produce  a  striped 
leaf  plant  if  striped-leaf  pollen  falls  on  their  silks.  The  striped-leaf 
character  is  known  as  a  Mendelian  recessive  and  normal  leaf  color  is  the 
Mendelian  dominant. 

Following  are  some  of  the  Mendelian  recessives,  affecting  the  plant 
or  leaf : 

1.  Blotched  or  mottled  leaf. 

2.  Pale  green  leaf  color. 

3.  Yellow   leaf   color. 

4.  Pure  white  seedlings. 

5.  Crinkly  leaf. 

6.  Short  jointed  or  the  brachytic  type  of  dwarf  corn. 

7.  Crooked  jointed  or  zig-zag  com. 

8.  Tassels  with  no  pollen. 

9.  Leaves  with  a  mid-rib  but  no  real  leaf. 

Njearly  all  abnormalities,  and  there  are  probably  hundreds  of  them. 
are  Mendelian  recessives.  Some  of  the  outstanding  exceptions  in  the 
way  of  unusual  characters  which  are  Mendelian  dominants  are : 

1.  Purple  plant  color  (governed  by  three  dominant  factors,  A,  B,  Pli. 

2.  Brown  plant  color  (determined  by  dominant  B  and  dominant  PI  with 
recessive  a). 

3.  Pod  corn  or  primitive  corn  with  a  husk  covering  each  kernel. 

4.  Red  kernels  which  owe  their  color  to  the  red  pericarp  or  hull. 

Xenia 

In  the  case  of  factors  affecting  the  kernel,  it  is  very  easy  to  get  con- 
fused as  to  the  nature  of  corn  heredity  because  of  what  is  known  as 
xenia.  When  a  pollen  grain  from  an  ordinary  yellow  dent  corn  fer- 
tilizes the  ovule  of  white  corn,  one  of  the  pollen  nuclei  joins  with  the 
germ  of  the  ovule  and  the  other  nucleus  joins  with  the  two  polar  nuclei 
of  the  ovule,  which  union  later  results  in  the  endosperm  or  starchy  part 
of  the  kernel.  Yellow  colored  endosperm  is  a  Mendelian  dominant  and 
because  of  this  xenia  or  double  fertilization,  the  effect  of  yellow  pollen 
when  used  to  fertilize  white  corn  may  be  seen  the  same  year,  although 
the  color  is  paler  than  that  of  pure  yellow  corn.  The  hull  or  pericarp 
is  not  affected  by  xenia.     That  is  the  reason  Avhy  pollen  from  red  corn 


HEREDITY  IN  CORN 


191 


has  no  immediate  effect,  althoug-h  a 
year  later  it  shows  up  strongly. 
The  pericarp,  botanically,  is  a  part 
of  the  mother  plant,  whereas  the 
endosperm  is  a  product  of  the  recent 
mating-. 

Blue  color  in  corn  kernels  is 
found  in  the  aleurone  layer,  which  is 
a  very  thin  layer  found  just  between 
the  pericarp  and  the  endosperm. 
The  aleurone  color  is  subject  to 
xenia.  Blueness  in  the  aleurone  is 
dependent  on  four  different  Men- 
delian  dominants  (A,  C,  R  and  Pr), 
all  of  which  must  be  present.  More- 
over, another  factor  (I)  must  be 
absent.  All  of  our  common  dent 
varieties  have  one  or  two  of  these 
dominant  characters  which  make  for 
blue  color  in  corn.  Very  few  of 
them,  however,  have  what  is  known 
as  the  R  factor.  The  other  three 
factors  (A,  C  and  Pr)  are  more  com- 
monly found  in  ordinary  corn.  This 
study  of  blue  color  in  corn  kernels 
is  an  exceedingly  complex  matter, 
and  because  it  is  so  difficult  and  has 
no  immediate  practical  application, 
it  will  not  be  gone  into  in  further 
detail,  but  the  student  will  be  re- 
ferred to  Memoir  16  of  Cornell 
riiiversitv. 


Illustrating  defective  kernels.  A 
Mendeiian  recessive.  (Courtesy  of 
Connecticut  Expei'iment   Station.) 


Heterozygosis  and  How  Inbreeding  Affects  It 

A  plant  or  animal  is  said  to  be  homozygous  Avhen  all  of  its  germ  cells 
carry  the  same  hereditary  properties.  Most  corn  plants  are  not  homo- 
zygous, but  are  heterozygous  (germ  cells  differ  from  one  another). 
However,  there  are  varying  degrees  of  heterozygosity.  For  illustra- 
tion, we  may  say  that  a  completely  homozygous  corn  plant  produces 
germ  cells  each  of  ^^hich  carries  the  inheritance  ABCDEFGHIJ.  A 
slightly  heterozygous  corn  plant  might  carry  half  its  germ  cells  with 
aBCDEFGHIj'  and  the  other  half  with  ABCDEFGHIJ.  Actually, 
the  ordinary  corn  plant  carries  dozens  of  different  types  of  germ  cells, 
as  may  be  roughly  illustrated  in  part  as  follows:  ABCDEfghij ; 
ABcdeFGhij:  ABcdEfgHij ;  ABCdefghij ;  ABcDeFgHiJ,  etc.,  etc. 
Perha]^s  this  particular  plant  may  be  homozygous  for  A  and  B  and  het- 


19: 


CORN  AND  CORxX-GROWlNG 


erozygoiis  for  all  else.  In  the  ordinary  corn  field,  it  may  Ix'  roughly 
assumed  that  the  avera<»e  plant  is  homozygons  for  about  half  of  its 
characters  and  heterozygous  for  half.  As  long  as  Avind  pollination  con- 
tinues, and  the  farmer  does  not  line-breed  by  planting  closely  related 
ears,  there  will  be  little  or  no  change  in  the  proportion  of  homozygosity 
and  heterozygosity.  If,  however,  a  plant  which  is  50  per  cent  hetero- 
zygous is  selfed;  the  next  generation  will  bear  germ  cells  which  are 
much  alike,  and  the  probabilities  favor  only  25  per  cent  heterozygosity. 
In  succeeding  generations,  the  heterozygosity  should  decline  to  the  fol- 
lowing percentages:  Second,  12.5  per  cent;  third,  6.25  per  cent;  fourth, 
;H2  per  cent ;  fifth,  1.56  per  cent,  etc.  After  five  generations  of  selfing, 
it  is  a  general  rule  that  almost  complete  homozygosity  is  reached,  pro- 
vided the  plant  to  start  with  was  50  per  cent  homozygous.  It  takes 
about  seventeen  generations  of  brother  and  sister  mating  to  give  the 
same  degree  of  homozygosity  as  five  generations  of  selfing. 

Why  Heterozygosis  Increases  Vigor 

It  is  theoretically  })ossible  some  day  to  find  an  inbred  strain  wliicli 
is  homozygous  only  for  good  qualities  and  which  would  therefore  be 


e        3        /o 

Illustrating  how  a  blood  strain  which  is  50  per  cent  heterozygous  is  affected 
by  different  numbers  of  generations  of  different  methods  of  breeding.  Six 
generations  of  selfing  should  bring  99.2  per  cent  homozygosity  if  the  strain 
was  50  per  cent  homozygous  to  start  with.  (Bulletin  1121,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 

vigorous.  Actually,  all  inbred  strains  so  far  developed  by  selfing  for 
four  or  more  years  are  decidedly  unproductive.  When  two  different 
homozygous  inbreds  are  crossed,  the  result  is  usually  great  vigor,  as 
described  in  Chapter  32.     This  kind  of  vigor  is  supposed  to  be  due  to 


HEREDITY  IN  CORN  193 

the  fact  that  most  p'ood  characters  are  Mendelian  dominants  and  most 
bad  ones  are  Mendelian  recessives,  and  that  the  first  generation  cross 
of  two  strains  g'ives  a  chance  for  all  of  the  good  characters  of  both  parents 
to  appear,  with  none  of  the  bad,  unless  the  bad  are  found  in  both  par- 
ents. It  is  this  theoretically  sound  background  which  has  caused  so 
many  experimenters  to  spend  so  much  time  with  corn  inbreedinu'  Avork 
in  recent  years. 

Linkage 

The  most  recent  step  forward  in  corn  heredity  has  been  in  the  study 
of  linkage,  discovering  which  IMendelian  factors  are  located  in  the  same 
chromosome.  Corn  has  ten  chromosomes  and  it  is  probable  that  by  1935 
nearly  100  different  factors  will  have  been  placed.  Not  only  this,  but 
it  will  be  possible  to  say  about  where  in  each  chromosome  each  of  the 
factors  is  located.  This  kind  of  Avork  belongs  to  the  professional  genet- 
icist at  the  present  time.  Eventually,  it  Avill  have  very  practical  appli- 
cations because  after  the  freakish  factors  are  definitely  located  in  their 
various  chromosomes  it  may  be  possible  to  locate  the' position  of  some 
of  the  factors  Avhich  make  for  yield.  In  the  meantime,  it  is  AA'orth  Avhile 
to  knoAv  that  this  kind  of  Avork  is  going  on  and  to  be  prepared  to  learn 
more  about  it  Avhen  it  finally  begins  to  have  some  practical  applications. 

Alphabetical  List  of  Genetic  Factors  in  Corn 

List  furnished  by  Dr.  Emerson,  of  Cornell  University.  Factors 
capitalized,  dominant;  not  capitalized,  recessive. 

A— anthoeyanin.    General  plant  color  including  aleurone.  peri- 
carp, stem,  leaves,  etc. 
ad— adherent.     Leaves  and  tassel  adhering, 
an— anther  ear.    8emi-dAvarf  plant  Avith  anthers  throughout  ear. 
ar — argentia.     Silvery  leaf. 
B — "broAA-n."     A  plant  color  factor.     An  allelomorphic  series 

B,  B^^',  b. 
be — brachytie.     Dwarf  plant, 
bh — blotched  aleurone. 
bl— blotched  leaf, 
^br — broAA'n  aleurone. 
bv — brevis.    DAvarf  plant, 
C — colored  aleurone. 

CO— coherent.     Branches  of  tassel  cohering, 
cr — crinkly  leaf. 

d— dAvarf  plant  Avith  anthers  throughout  ear. 
de— defective.      Little    or   no   development   of   endosperm    anrl 

embryo, 
^dt— dotted  leaf, 
f — fine  striped  leaf. 

aMode  of  inhentance  not  definitely  established. 


104  CORN  AXI)  CORX-CIROWIXG 

fi — fine  streaked  leaf. 

f  1 —  floury-flinty  endosperm. 
^Fs — fasciated  ear. 

g — L^olden  leaf. 
g\—  glossy  leaf, 
gs— green  striped  leaf. 

I — inhibitor  of  aleurone  color, 
in — intensifier  of  red  and  purple  aleurone. 
^Ir — interrupted  ear. 

j— japonica  striped  leaf. 
1 — luteus  (yellow)  seedling. 

Ig—  liguleless  leaf. 

li— lineate  leaf, 

]\I— mottled  aleurone — with  heterozygous  R. 
mr — midrib.    Leaf  consists  of  but  little  more  than  the  midrib, 
ms—  male  sterile.    Anthers  produce  no  pollen, 
na— nana.     Dwarf  plant, 
nk—  naked.    Cob  and  tassel  almost  free  from  spikelets. 

P — pericarp  and  cob  color.    An  allelomorphic  series  P'"'"'',  P^^'^^', 

P^'",  etc. 
pb—  piebald,  yellow  and  green  spotted  seedling, 
pg—  pale  green  seedlings. 
PI — purple  plant  color. 
Pr—  purple  aleurone. 

R— red  aleurone.    An  allelomorphic  series,  also  affecting  plant 

colors  and  pericarp :  R'",  R^,  r"",  r^,  r^*^,  etc. 
ra — ramosa  ear. 
^ru—  rugose  leaf. 

sh—  shrunken  endosperm. 
''^sk— silkless.    No  silks  on  cob. 

si — slashed.     Slashed  or  shredded  seedling, 
sm — salmon  silks. 

sp — spear.    Spear-like  seedling.    Usually  lethal. 

st — stippled  aleurone. 

su — sugary  endosperm. 

te— tassel  ear    )  Two  types  producing  only  pistillate  flowers  in 

ts—  tassel  seed  )  the  tassel. 
Tu — tunicate  ear  (pod  corn), 
-'^tw — twisted  stalk. 

V — virescent  seedling. 

w — white  seedling, 
ws — white  sheath. 
wx — Avaxy  endosperm. 

Y — yellow  endosperm. 


aMode  of  inheritance  not  definitely  established. 


HEREDITY  IN  CORN  195 

Yp — pale  yellow  endosperm. 
ys — yellow  striped  leaf. 
zb — zebra — transversely  striped  leaves. 
zg — zigzag  stalk. 

zu — Zimi  aleiirone  (colored  caps). 
(This  list  was  quite  complete  in  1922,  but  new  factors  are  being 
added  by  corn  geneticists  every  year.) 

Chlorophyll  Factors 

Seedlings — 

pb — ^piebald. 
pg — pale  green. 
V — virescent.     (Lindstrom,  1918.) 
w — white.     (Lindstrom,  1918.) 
Seedlings  and  mature  plants — 
ar — argentia. 
f — fine  stripe. 

1 — yellow  seedlings  with  w  or  v.     Yellow  striped  in  mature 
japonica.     (Lindstrom,  1918;  1921.) 
zb — zebra. 
]\Iature  plants — 

bl — blotched  leaf, 
dt — dotted  leaf, 
fi — fine  streaked, 
g — golden.     (Lindstrom,  1918.) 
gs — green  striped.     (Lindstrom,  1918.) 
j — japonica  striped.  (Lindstrom,  193  8.) 
li— lineate  leaf.     (Collins,  1920.) 
ws — ^ white  sheath, 
ys — yellow  striped. 

Plant  and  Anther  Colors 
(Emerson,  1921) 
Plant —  Anthers — 

la— A  B  PI  R'— purple .purple 

lb— A  B^  PI  Rr— weak  purple purple 

Ig — A  B  PI  R^ — purple green 

Ila — A  B  pi  RJ" — mn  red pink 

lib — A  Rw  pi  Rr — weak  sun  red pink 

Ilg — A  B  pi  R^ — =iun  red green 

Ilia — A  b  PI  R'' — dilute  purple ^purple 

Illg — A  b  PI  R& — green green 

IVa — A  b  pi  R^ — dilute  sun  red pink 

IVg — A  b  pi  Rs — green green 

V — a  B  pi         — brown green 

Via — a  B  pi  — green     (or     slight     brown     in 

sheaths) green 


196 


CORN  AND  (^ORN-GROAVTNG 


r  a  b  PI      — ^reen    (or  sliji'ht  lirown  in  tas- 

Vlb—  sel) -reen 

L  a  b  PI  r<^'^ — g-reen    (consideralilc    brown    in 

tas.sel) green 

Vic — a  b  pi  — green. 

Factor  r''  has  the  same  effect  on  plant  color  as  R'",  and  rs  the  same 
effect  as  R^. 

Silk  Colors 
(Anderson,  1921a) 
A  Sm  P — green. 
A  Sm  p — green. 
A  sm  ,P — salmon. 
A  sm  p — brown. 
Colors  indicated  are  of  silks  under  husks.    Parts  exposed  to  sunlight 
may  be  red  if  R'"  or  r''  is  also  present.    P  is  the  factor  for  red  pericarp. 
With  aa  all  silks  are  green. 


Pericarp  Colors  and  Patterns 

(Anderson,  1921b) 

Cherry  pericarp  series —        Pericarp  color — 

Cob  color — 

A  PI  rch 

cherry 

purple 

a  PI  T^^' 

brownish 

brownish 

A  pi  rch 

white 

white 

a  pi  r^h 

white 

white 

Red  pericarp  series- 

- 

A  P'-'- 

red 

red 

Apor 

orange 

red 

A  P^^i- 

white 

red 

A  Pow 

orange 

white 

A  pew 

white-capped  red 

white 

APvv 

variegated 

variegated 

Ap 

white 

white 

With  aa  brown  color  in  place  of  red. 

Aleurone  Colors  and  Patterns 

(East,  1912;  Emerson,  1918) 
i  A  C  R  Pr — purple, 
i  A  C  R  pr — red. 
i  A  C  r       ■>, 
i  A  c  R        1 
i  a  C  R 
i  ,A  c  r 
i  a  C  r        j 
i   a  c   r       j 
I  A  C  R  Pr— white. 

Bh — blotched.    Shows  only  in  A  c  R  Bh. 

br — brown.    Relation  unknown. 


whit( 


HEREDITY  IN  CORN  197 

in — intensifier. 

]M — mottled.    Shows  only  in  r  r  R. 

st — stippled. 

zu — Zimi. 

Endosperm  Colors 

Y— yellow.     (East  &  Hayes,  1911.) 
Yp — pale  yellow.     (Emerson,  1911.) 

Endosperm  Texture 

Su  Wx— starchy.     ( Collins  &  Kempton,  1914 ;  Kempton,  1919. ) 
Su  wx — -waxy.     (Collins  &  Kempton,  1914;  Kempton,  1919.) 
su  Wx— sugary.     (Collins  &  Kempton,  1914;  Kempton,  1919.) 
su    wx — sugary.     (Collins  &  Kempton,  1914;  Kempton,  1919.) 

Fl  Fl  Fl—  flinty.     ( Hayes  &  East,  1915. ) 

Fl  Fl  fl  — flinty.     (Hayes  &  East,  1915.) 

Fl  fl  fl  —floury.     (Hayes  &  East,  1915.) 

fl  fl  fl  —floury.  (Hayes  &  East,  1915.) 
de — defective  seeds.  (Jones,  1920.) 
sh — shrunken  endosperm.     (Hutchinson,  1921.) 

Plant  Height 
Dwarfs  and  semi-dwarfs — 

an — anther  ear   (variable  in  height).      (Emerson  &  Emerson, 

1921.) 
be — brachytic.     (Kempton,  1920.) 
bv — brevis. 
cr —  crinkly. 

d — dM-arf.     (Emerson,  1912b;  Emerson  &  Emerson,  1921.) 
na — nana. 

te — tassel  ear.    (Emerson,  1920.) 
ts — tassel  seed.     (Emerson,  1920.) 
tw — twisted, 
zg— zigzag.     (Eyster,  W.  H.,  1921a.) 

Leaf  Characters 
cr — crinkly, 
gl — glossy. 

Ig — liguleless.     (Emerson,  1912a.) 
mr — midrib, 
ru — rugose, 
si — slashed, 
sp — spear. 

Ear  Characters 

d — dwarf.    AVith  anthers  in  the  ear. 
an — semi-dwarf.    With  anthers  in  the  ear. 
ra — ramosa.    Branched  ear.     (Gernert,  1912.) 
Fs— fasciated  ear.     (East  &  Hayes,  1911;  Emerson,  1912b.) 


198  CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 

in — interrupted  ear.     (Emerson,  1912b.) 
nk— naked.     (East  &  Hayes,  1912.) 
sk — silkless. 

Tu— tunicate.     (Collins,  1917.) 
te — tassel  ear.    Zigzag  rows  in  ear  due  to  development  of  both 

flowers  of  the  spikelet. 
ts — tassel  seed.    Zigzag  rows  in  ear  due  to  development  of  both 

flowers  of  the  spikelet. 

Tassel  Characters 
ad— adherent. 
CO — 3oherent. 

ms — male  sterile.     (Eyster,  L,  A.,  1921.) 
nk — naked, 
ra — ramosa. 
Tu — tunicate, 
te — tassel  ear. 
ts — tassel  seed. 

Linkage  Groups  in  Corn 

List  furnished  by  Dr.  Lindstrom,  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station. 
I,  the  C     group,  including  also  I,  sh,  wx,  v^ 
II,  the  R     group,  including  also  1,  S,  g,  li^,  pgi,  (w,?) 

III,  the  Su  group,  including  also  Tu 

IV,  the  B     group,  including  also  Ig,  ts^,  v^ 

V,  the  Y     group,  including  also  PI,  sm.  fi,  bh,  w^,  w-,  Wg 
VI,  the  P     group,  including  also  br,  tSo,  f 
VII,  the  A     group,  including  also  v  ? 

Miscellaneous  Linkages 
Yp-pg3 
d— pgo 
gs — z,-an 
gl — fr-v 
(This  was  the  situation  as  viewed  by  Dr.  Lindstrom  early  in  1923. 
]\Iany  more  factors  will  doubtless  be  placed  in  their  linkage  groups  every 
year  as  more  experimental  work  is  done  liy  the  corn  geneticists.) 


CHAPTER  35 

CORN  JUDGING 

r^ORN  shows  first  became  really  popular  about  1890,  reaching  their 
crest  about  1910.  In  the  early  corn  shows,  the  idea  was  to  give 
the  prize  to  the  sample  which  gave  indications  of  the  greatest  yielding 
power.  The  men  who  drew  up  the  early  score  cards  assumed  that  of 
course  high  yield  was  associated  with  ears  as  large  as  the  ordinary  sea- 
son would  mature,  and  ears  with  a  high  percentage  of  shelled  corn. 
Therefore,  in  the  central  part  of  the  Corn  Belt  their  ideal  was  an  ear  ten 
inches  long,  seven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference,  with  eighteen 
to  twenty-two  rows  packed  together  tightly  on  the  cob  and  carried  out 
over  the  tip  and  well-rounded  butt.  They  wanted  the  space  between 
the  rows  of  kernels,  both  at  the  cob  and  on  the  outside  of  the  ear,  to  be 
as  narroM'  as  possible  because  that  meant  a  higher  percentage  of  shelled 
corn.  Deep  kernels,  kej'stone  in  shape,  and  moderately  wide,  met  their 
ideals  better  than  either  the  narrow  shoe-peg  kernel  or  the  shallow, 
extremely  square  kernel,  both  of  which  are  usually  associated  with  a 
lower  shelling  percentage.  They  preferred  ears  with  straight  rows  and 
cylindrical  in  shape,  because  the  kernels  were  more  uniform  and  could 
be  planted  with  fewer  skips  by  the  corn  planter.  Large  germs  were 
desired  because  that  meant  more  oil  and  protein  in  the  kernel  and  there- 
fore more  feeding  value.  For  probably  fifty  years  before  the  popular 
corn  shows  of  the  early  twentieth  century,  these  common  sense  points 
had  appealed  to  thoughtful  corn  farmers  everywhere,  and  the  men  who 
made  out  the  score  cards  in  the  nineties  merely  reflected  the  opinions 
of  the  men  who  had  thought  most  about  corn. 

Fancy  Points 

About  1900,  the  corn  judges  began  to  prefer  corn  with  a  rough 
dent.  The  rough  dented  corn  seemed  to  have  straighter  rows  and  more 
uniform  kernels,  which  also  seemed  to  be  a  little  deeper.  It  was  also 
advisable  to  develop  fancy  points  of  this  sort  in  order  to  enable  the 
judges  to  make  any  distinction  between  the  hundreds  of  competing  sam- 
ples, most  of  which  were  almost  equally  good  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  original  score  card.  And  so  it  came  about  that  corn  judges  uncon- 
sciously came  to  think  more  and  more  about  fancy  points. 

Tests  Upset  Ideals 

The  first  corn  shows  were  held  before  the  days  of  careful  experi- 
mental work.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  actual  yield 
tests  with  different  types  of  corn  rudely  upset  some  of  the  most  cher- 


!00 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


ished  ideals  of  the  early  corn  judges.  For  ten  years  the  Ohio  station 
continnonsly  selected  for  moderately  long  ears  of  corn  and  for  moderately 
short,  and  contrasted  the  yielding  power  of  the  two  strains.  The  short 
ears,  only  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  seemed  to  have  the  ability  to 
yield  almost  exactly  the  same  as  the  ears  nine  or  ten  inches  long.     Bare 


This  type  of  ten-ear  sample,  which  represents  hundreds  of  hours  of  labor  pick- 
ing over  thousands  of  ears  of  corn,  wins  at  the  corn  shows.  No  one  can 
tell  in  advance  whether  such  corn  will  yield  as  much  or  more  than  ordi- 
nary corn. 

tipped  ears  with  nearly  an  inch  of  cob  showing  yielded  about  the  same 
amount  of  shelled  corn  per  acre  as  ears  with  perfectly  filled  tips.  Ears 
shelling  out  only  76  per  cent  yielded  considerably  more  ear  corn  per  acre 
and  fully  as  much  shelled  corn  as  ears  shelling  88  per  cent.  Smooth  corn 
slightly  outyielded  the  rough  corn.  Carefully  conducted  tests  of  this 
sort  at  the  Ohio,  Nebraska  and  a  number  of  other  stations  made  it  ap- 
pear extremely  doubtful  if  many  of  the  points  on  the  old-fashioned 
corn  score  card  were  worth  while  from  the  standpoint  of  yield. 

No  one  has  as  yet  learned  enough  about  corn  to  know  just  what 
relationship  there  is  between  yield  and  the  different  ear  and  kernel 
characteristics.  The  relationship  seems  to  be  different  in  different  sea- 
sons and  on  different  soils.  The  following  yield  score  card  is  based  chief- 
ly on  experimental  work  at  the  Iowa  station  and  probably  applies  as  well 
as  any  to  central  Iowa  and  Illinois. 


CORN  JUDGING  201 

Yield  Score  Card 

(No  fancy  points) 

Points 
Solid,  well-matured  ear  which  weighs  like  lead   (heavy  for  its  size,  with 

kernels  firm  on  cob)   15 

Length  of  ear(  at  least  7  inches)  5 

Circumference  of  ear  (at  least  5.5  inches) 5 

Width  of  kernel  (not  less  than  one-fourth  inch  wide) 15 

Thickness  of  kernel  (not  more  than  8  kernels  to  the  inch) 10 

Depth  of  kernel  (at  least  seven-sixteenths  inch  deep) 15 

Kernel  plump  at  tip  15 

Kernels  without  blistering  or  damage  by  mice 5 

Kernels  with  bright,  large  germ  (germ  should  be  clear  and  waxy  when  cut)  5 
Kernels  come  loose  from  cob  without  leaving  tip  cap  or  taking  part  of  cob 

with   them   5 

Kernels  hard,  horny  and  shiny,  without  showing  white  starch  on  their  backs  5 

Total lOU 

It  is  assumed  in  this  score  card,  as  should  be  the  case  with  all  corn 
score  cards,  that  ears  which  will  not  grow  are  given  no  consideration 
whatever.  In  Illinois  and  parts  of  Iowa  where  root  rot  diseases  are 
serious,  the  last  point — ^hard,  horny,  shiny  kernels  free  from  starch — 
probably  should  be  given  15  or  20  points  instead  of  only  five,  for  it 
has  been  definitely  proved  that  starchy  kernels  are  more  susceptible  to 
these  diseases  and  yield  less  as  a  consequence.  In  Nebraska,  especially 
in  the  western  part,  15  or  20  points  should  be  given  to  a  smooth  dent 
combined  with  a  slender  ear  and  freedom  from  starchiness.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  central  and  southern  Indiana  seem 
to  yield  more  when  planted  to  a  rough,  somewhat  starchy  corn  carrying 
twenty  or  even  twenty-two  rows  of  kernels,  than  when  planted  to  the 
smaller,  slender-eared  type  with  its  horny,  shiny  kernels. 

What  Corn  Judges  Like 

AVhile  no  one  knows  much  about  measuring  the  effect  of  ear  and 
kernel  characteristics  on  yield,  it  is  fairly  easy  to  learn  what  type  of  corn 
will  appeal  to  corn  judges  at  the  big  corn  shows.  In  the  single  ear 
classes  in  the  central  part  of  the  Corn  Belt,  the  ideal  ear  is  ten  inches 
long,  seven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference,  with  twenty  or  twenty- 
two  straight  rows  of  kernels  carried  out  to  the  tip  (tip  kernels  being 
of  the  same  type  as  the  kernels  on  the  body  of  the  ear),  and  with  a 
well  rounded  butt  with  only  a  small  opening  left  for  the  shank.  Of 
course,  the  ear  must  be  straight  and  cylindrical  in  shape,  with  the  diam- 
eter carried  uniformly  from  the  butt  to  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the 
tip,  where  a  slight  taper  is  permissible.  The  kernels  must  be  moderately 
wide,  keystone  in  shape,  deep,  plump  at  the  tip,  and  without  any  trace 
of  being  shrunken  or  blistered.  In  Iowa  and  Illinois,  the  judges  lay 
great  emphasis  on  the  backs  of  the  kernels  being  horny  and  shiny,  but 
in  Indiana  and  at  the  International  Grain  and  Hay  Show  they  are  not 
so  particular  about  this  point.     In  central  Iowa,   Indiana   and  at  the 


202  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

International  the  custom  has  been  to  favor  the  rough  corn,  -whereas  in 
Illinois,  since  1920,  they  have  been  favoring  the  smooth  corn  with  an 
exceedingly  horny  kernel,  showing  the  least  possible  susceptibility  to 
root  rot  infections.  By  attending  corn  shows  and  associating  with  corn 
judges,  it  is  possible  to  learn  their  ideals  and  pick  corn  to  meet  them. 
In  the  ten-ear,  thirty-ear  and  bushel  classes,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  great 
attention  to  uniformity.  All  of  the  ears  should  be  within  an  inch  of 
the  same  length.  None  of  the  ears  should  carry  less  than  eighteen  rows 
nor  more  than  twenty-two.  The  kernels  should  all  be  of  the  same  size, 
shape  and  color,  showing  no  trace  of  mixture  with  white  pollen  (if 
the  variety  is  yellow)  or  yellow  pollen  (if  the  variety  is  white).  In  ad- 
dition, the  ears  must  be  true  to  what  the  judges  recognize  as  the  variety 
type.  To  fulfill  all  of  these  requirements  means  that  a  man  must  start 
with  seed  from  a  recognized  show  strain  and  grow  it  out  on  rich  soil 
and  then  go  over  50,000  or  100,000  ears  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  prize 
winning  sample.  Picking  corn  for  show  is  interesting  work  which  ap- 
peals to  farmers  with  an  eye  for  the  beautiful.  The  premiums  offered 
at  the  corn  shows  have  made  corn  exhibiting  profitable  for  many  men. 
This  has  been  especially  true  in  central  Indiana  and  the  southern  half 
of  Iowa,  Mhere  a  combination  of  rich  soil,  a  rather  long  season,  and 
favorable  rainfall  have  made  it  possible  to  grow  beautiful,  rough,  large- 
eared  corn  very  easily. 

Shows  Are  in  a  State  of  Change 

It  seems  that  corn  shows  are  now  in  a  state  of  change,  and  that  in 
the  future  the  judges  may  pay  somewhat  more  attention  to  the  practical 
points  and  somewhat  less  to  the  merely  beautiful.  The  weak  point  in 
all  corn  judging  is  that  most  of  the  really  important  functions  of  the 
corn  plant  which  have  to  do  with  yield  express  themselves  in  other 
ways  than  through  the  shape  of  ear  and  type  of  kernel. 

Corn  shows  and  corn  judges  have  an  important  place  in  drawing 
men  of  like  tastes  together,  but  the  day  is  past  when  they  are  having 
much  direct  influence  in  improving  the  yield  of  our  corn.  The  Iowa 
Corn  Growers'  Association  has  to  some  extent  recognized  this  by  inaugu- 
rating a  scientific  yield  contest,  as  described  in  Chapter  36. 


CHAPTER  36 

CORN  YIELD  CONTESTS 

PRACTICAL  farmers  long  ago  discovered  that  the  corn  which  won  at 
the  corn  shows  was  not  necessarily  high  yielding  corn.  It  was  there- 
fore suggested  that  farmers  compete  to  see  who  could  produce,  not  the 
best  looking  corn,  but  the  most  corn  per  acre.  Such  contests  demon- 
strated that  it  was  possible  in  the  South,  by  means  of  extremely  heavy 
fertilizing  combined  with  a  favorable  season  to  produce  over  200  bushels 
per  acre.  On  rich  clover  sod  land  in  the  North  it  was  found  that  occa- 
sionally, when  all  conditions  were  favorable,  that  over  130  bushels  per 
acre  could  be  produced.  But  the  practical  farmer  again  rebelled.  He 
said  that  he  had  no  time  to  fool  around  with  a  pet  acre  of  corn  which 
would  not  win  a  prize  unless  it  happened  to  be  favored  with  lucky  rains 
at  just  the  right  time  in  July  and  August.  As  a  result,  acre  yield  con- 
tests are  now  used  for  the  most  part  as  a  device  to  interest  farm  club 
boys.  In  this  way,  these  tests  have  done  an  immense  amount  of  good, 
definitely  starting  many  boys  on  the  path  of  becoming  genuinely  inter- 
ested in  all  that  makes  for  good  farming. 

Best  Type  of  Test 

The  best  type  of  corn  yield  contest  involves  growing  several  strains 
of  corn  side  by  side  on  the  same  land,  to  see  which  sorts  will  yield  the 
most  when  all  conditions  are  alike.  This  type  of  contest  should  be  con- 
ducted for  at  least  three  years,  and  preferably  for  five.  Since  practical 
farmers  are  not  in  position  to  do  the  careful  experimental  work  involved 
in  this  kind  of  a  contest,  it  has  been  the  custom  for  the  county  agent, 
the  experiment  station,  or  the  Corn  Growers'  Association  to  supervise 
the  planting  and  weighing.  All  the  farmer  who  enters  this  kind  of  a 
contest  has  to  do  is  to  furnish  a  few  pounds  of  seed  (in  some  cases  he 
also  pays  an  entry  fee  of  a  few  dollars  to  defray  part  of  the  expenses). 
The  farmer  has  none  of  the  bother  of  growing  or  harvesting,  but  at  the 
finish  receives  the  benefit  of  knowing  how  his  seed  compared  in  yielding 
power  with  other  strains  of  corn  grown  under  exactly  the  same  soil 
and  moisture  conditions.  If  his  corn  has  done  well,  he  may  develop 
quite  a  seed  business.  If  it  has  done  poorly,  he  will  find  it  advisable 
to  buy  corn  from  someone  whose  corn  has  done  well,  growing  the  two 
sorts  side  by  side  on  his  own  farm  at  first  in  order  to  verify  under  his 
o^^  n  conditions  the  results  of  the  yield  test. 

Woodford  County  Test 
The  first  carefully  conducted  three-year  corn  yield  contest  of  this 
sort  was  the  Woodford  county,  Illinois,  test,  which  was  began  in  1919 
and  completed  in  1921.     Seed  from  120  Woodford  county  farmers  was 


204 


COKN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


entered  in  this  test  in  eaeli  of  three  years.  These  120  sorts  were  grown 
side  by  side  in  two  different  places  in  the  county.  Every  other  row 
across  the  test  field  was  a  check  sort  not  entered  in  the  contest.  By  cor- 
recting the  yield  by  means  of  the  adjoining  check,  it  was  possible  to  take 
into  account  soil  variations.  The  Krug  strain  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent, 
which  stood  at  the  top  as  an  average  of  the  three  years,  outyielded  the 
average  corn  in  the  contest  by  6.6  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  poorest,  which 
was  also  a  strain  of  Reid,  by  17.1  bushels.  The  ten  high  yielders  were 
grown  again  side  by  side  in  a  number  of  different  places  in  "Woodford 
county,  in  1922,  and  again  the  Krug  corn  outyielded  the  others.  The 
Krug  corn  was  also  entered  in  the  Iowa  corn  yield  contest  in  1922,  and 
yielded  within  one  bushel  per  acre  as  much  as  the  corn  which  won  first. 

Iowa  Yield  Test 

The  Iowa  corn  yield  contest  was  begun  in  1920  by  the  Iowa  Corn 
Growers'  Association.  The  Iowa  experiment  station  assists  in  planting 
and  harvesting  the  plots  of  the  strains,  which  are  grown  side  by  side 
under  the  same  conditions.     Each  strain  which  is  entered  is  grown  in 


Black  Yellow  Dent  corn,  which  has  yielded  well  as  a  three-year  average  in  the 
Iowa  Corn  Yield  Contest. 


the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  the  central,  and  the  western,  and  at  each 
place  at  least  five  plots  of  each  strain  are  grown,  thus  making  fifteen 
replications  in  all.  Such  a  careful  test  involves  an  expense  of  about 
.$20  for  each  strain  of  corn  entered,  and  each  farmer  who  sends  in  his 
seed  to  be  tested  is  therefore  charged  $10,  the  other  $10  being  borne  by 
the  Corn  Growers'  Association.  For  purposes  of  the  contest,  the  state 
is  divided  into  four  sections,  northern,  north-central,  south-central  and 
southern.  Most  of  the  strains  entered  in  the  northern  section  have  been 
Silver  King,  whereas,  in  the  southern  and  south-central  sections  the 
contest  has  chiefly  been  between  different  strains  of  Reid  Yellow  Dent. 
In  the  south-central  section,  where  the  competition  has  been  the  keenest, 
the  Black  strain  of  Reid  has  stood  high  as  an  average  of  three  years, 
with  a  yield  of  seven  bushels  per  acre  more  than  the  strain  of  Reid 
which  was  the  lowest  as  an  average  of  the  three  years.     There  were 


CORN  YIELD  CONTESTS  205 

many  other  strains  of  Reid  which  were  lower  yielding  than  this  low 
strain,  but  the  farmers  growing  them  became  tired  of  paying  $10  to 
enter  them  after  one  or  two  years.  In  this  respect,  the  Iowa  form  of 
corn  yield  contest  is  inferior  to  the  Woodford  county,  Illinois,  test, 
where  all  the  farmers  stay  in  every  year  and  the  results  are  not  an- 
nounced until  the  last  year. 

Technique  of  a  Yield  Test 

In  the  ordinary  county  corn  yield  contest,  the  county  agent  sees 
that  some  ten  or  twenty  different  local  strains  are  planted  side  by  side 
on  the  same  farm.  Such  a  test  awakens  a  lot  of  local  interest,  but  un- 
less the  county  agent  neglects  his  other  duties  it  is  very  difficult  for 
him  to  make  a  really  thorough  comparison  and  as  a  result  the  ordinary 
county  corn  yield  contest  is  rather  inaccurate.  The  technique  of  con- 
ducting a  corn  yield  contest  in  order  to  get  the  most  accurate  comparison 
of  yielding  power  at  the  least  expense  of  money  and  time  has  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  worked  oat.  In  the  Iowa  corn  yield  contest  the  original 
plan  was  to  plant  the  different  sorts  side  by  side  in  plots  of  four  twenty- 
five-hill  rows  each,  there  being  five  replications  of  such  plots  for  each 
sort.  Only  the  two  center  rows  were  harvested,  the  theory  being  that 
the  two  outside  rows  might  be  affected  by  the  sorts  grown  on  either  side. 
In  actual  practice,  it  was  found  that  all  of  the  sorts  entered  were  so  sim- 
ilar in  their  habit  of  growth  that  there  was  no  need  of  having  two  border 
rows  to  eliminate  plot  competition.  Under  such  conditions,  it  seemed 
possible  to  gain  accuracy  by  having  twenty  replications  of  one  row  each 
rather  than  five  replications  of  four  rows  each.  In  the  Iowa  contest, 
they  have  always  grown  a  check  sort  every  fifth  plot  in  order  to  have 
a  standard  by  which  to  correct  for  soil  conditions.  It  seems,  however, 
that  the  use  of  a  check  sort  to  correct  for  soil  conditions  is  only  doubt- 
fully worth  while  when  there  are  ten  or  more  replications.  The  ideal 
way  seems  to  be  to  have  a  row  of  check  corn  grown  in  every  other  row 
across  the  field  or  else  to  leave  out  the  check  and  try  to  obtain  accuracy 
by  having  at  least  ten  replications.  Refined  mathematical  and  experi- 
mental methods  are  being  applied  to  this  problem,  and  it  is  expected 
that  by  1928  the  most  practical  way  of  determining  the  comparative 
yielding  powers  of  different  kinds  of  corn  when  grown  under  the  same 
conditions,  will  have  been  discovered.  In  any  event,  it  will  always  be 
necessary  to  run  such  a  test  for  at  least  three  years. 

The  benefit  of  such  contests  as  the  Iowa  corn  yield  contest  is  that 
certain  standard  strains  are  discovered  which  have  demonstrated  their 
ability  to  yield  well  over  a  period  of  years.  Farmers  who  do  not  enter 
such  contests  can  get  seed  of  such  sorts  to  grow  side  by  side  with  their 
home  corn.  Hundreds  of  farmers  have  done  this  as  a  result  of  the 
loAva  corn  yield  contest.  Some  of  them  have  found  that  their  home  corn 
has  a  higher  yielding  power  under  their  own  conditions,  but  others 
have  found  that  the  high  yielding  corn  discovered  by  the  yield  contest 
is  fully  five  or  ten  bushels  per  acre  better  than  their  home  corn. 


CHAPTER  37 

COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS  OF  CORN 

A  BOUT  two  hundred  and  eighty  million  bushels,  or  10  per  cent  of  the 
corn  crop  of  the  United  States,  is  manufactured  annually.  Roughly, 
one  hundred  and  eighty  million  bushels,  or  6.5  per  cent,  are  ground  in 
the  corn  meal  mills,  and  sixty  million  bushels,  or  2.2  per  cent,  are  handled 
by  the  starch  factories.  About  forty  million  bushels,  or  about  1.5  per 
cent,  of  the  corn  crop  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol,  lye  hominy 
and  in  miscellaneous  ways. 

Dry  Process 

The  corn  meal  mills  manufacture  the  meal  by  what  is  known  as  the 
dry  process.  In  the  early  days  of  corn  milling,  the  entire  kernel  was 
ground.  This  made  an  excellent  quality  of  corn  meal,  although  some 
people  objected  to  it  because  of  the  fine  particles  of  hull.  The  greatest 
objection,  however,  was  the  presence  of  the  germ  in  the  meal,  which  made 
the  meal  rancid  if  kept  a  great  length  of  time.  IModern  corn  milling, 
therefore,  involves  degerminating  the  corn  as  its  first  step.  The  corn 
is  sprayed  with  water  or  treated  with  steam  until  it  has  a  moisture  con- 
tent of  about  20  per  cent,  after  which  it  goes  into  a  machine  with  a 
rapidly  revolving  core,  w^hich  results  in  breaking  up  the  kernel  in  such 
a  way  as  to  loosen  the  hull  and  the  germ  but  not  to  grind  the  starch.  By 
mechanical  processes,  the  hard  starch  is  separated  and  ground  into  the 
commercial  corn  meal  as  we  know  it  today,  or,  as  some  people  call  it, 
' '  hominy  grits. ' '  If  the  meal  is  ground  extremely  finely,  it  makes  what 
is  known  as  corn  flour,  which  can  be  mixed  with  wheat  flour  to  produce 
a  product  which  is  just  as  good  as  pure  wheat  flour,  although  the  bread 
made  from  it  does  not  rise  quite  as  much. 

The  soft  Avhite  starch  is  mixed  with  the  hulls,  which  are  commercially 
known  as  corn  bran,  to  make  what  is  known  as  hominy  feed.  Extensive 
experiments  with  hominy  feed  in  Iowa  and  Indiana,  indicate  that  it  has 
])ractically  the  same  value  for  hogs  as  shelled  corn.  The  germs  are  some- 
times ground  and  mixed  with  the  hominy  feed;  but  in  the  more  up-to- 
date  plants,  the  oil  is  pressed  out.  The  oil  cake  which  is  left  after  press- 
ing out  the  oil  is  generally  mixed  with  the  hominy  feed.  Under  average 
conditions,  a  bushel  of  corn,  under  the  dry  process,  produces  about  22 
pounds  of  corn  meal,  33  pounds  of  hominy  feed,  and  one-half  pound 
of  oil. 

In  the  manufacture  of  corn  flakes,  the  dry  process  is  used  until  the 
coarse  particles  of  horny  starch  are  separated  out.     These  are   rolled 


COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS  OF  CORN  207 

out  and  toasted.  Most  of  the  corn  flakes  are  manufactured  by  three 
large  plants  at  Battle  Creek,  Michigan.  They  use  about  10,000,000  bush- 
els of  corn  annually. 

Wet  Process 

The  starch  factories  use  only  about  one-third  as  much  corn  as  the 
corn  meal  mills,  but  the  process  is  far  more  complicated,  and  the  prod- 
ucts are  much  more  extensively  used  in  a  wide  variety  of  industries.  The 
method  of  manufacture  is  known  as  the  wet  process.  A  bushel  of  corn 
as  manufactured  in  a  starch  factory  by  the  wet  process  produces  about 
32  pounds  of  starch,  15  pounds  of  gluten  feed,  1.5  pounds  of  corn  oil  and 
1.5  pounds  of  corn  oil  cake  meal.  Of  the  32  pounds  of  starch  which 
are  obtained  from  the  ordinary  bushel  of  corn,  only  about  12  pounds 
are  usually  sold  by  the  starch  factories  in  the  form  of  starch.  Most  of 
the  rest  (about  20  pounds)  is  usually  converted  into  corn  syrup.  Twenty 
pounds  of  corn  starch  make  24  or  25  pounds  of  corn  syrup  or  glucose. 
About  tAvo  pounds  of  the  original  32  pounds  of  starch  obtained  from  a 
bushel  of  corn  are  made  into  a  corn  sugar.  Both  corn  syrup  and  corn 
sugar  are  extensively  used  in  candy  making,  ice  cream,  preserving,  etc. 
Of  the  sugar  used  in  commercial  candies,  over  one-third  comes  from  corn. 
People  in  the  United  States  who  eat  candy  are  patronizing  the  farmers 
of  the  Corn  Belt  to  almost  as  great  an  extent  as  they  are  the  planters  of 
Cuba  and  Hawaii. 

The  wet  milling  process  of  corn  manufacture  is  briefly  as  follows : 

The  corn  first  goes  through  a  very  thorough  purification  process  by 
which  dust,  particles  of  corn  cobs,  nails  and  other  impurities  are  re- 
moved. The  corn  is  then  steeped  for  about  thirty-six  hours  in  lukewarm 
water  to  which  is  added  a  small  amount  of  sulphurous  acid.  This  is  nec- 
essary for  it  prevents  fermentation,  and  also  softens  the  corn,  allowing  a 
better  separation  to  take  place  later  on  in  the  process.  Most  of  the  sul- 
phurous acid  is  lost  in  the  steps  to  follow :  The  steeped  corn  is  fed  into 
disintegrator  steel  mills,  which  crush  the  kernel  but  do  not  grind  it.  In 
this  crushing  the  elastic  germ  remains  unbroken  and  is  easily  separated 
from  the  remainder  of  the  kernel.  This  is  done  by  passing  the  crushed 
mass  into  "germ  separator  tanks,"  in  which  the  germs,  containing  60 
per  cent  oil,  rise  to  the  top  and  are  removed  by  a  mechanical  skimming 
apparatus.  They  are  then  thoroughly  washed  with  water  in  rotating 
sieves  to  remove  all  traces  of  gluten  and  starch  which  may  adhere  to  them. 

The  lumps  of  endosperm,  hulls  and  loose  particles  of  gluten  and 
starch  leave  the  separator  tanks  as  tailings.  This  mass,  coming  from  the 
bottom  of  the  tanks,  goes  to  the  buhr  mills,  in  which  it  is  ground  fine. 
It  is  then  pumped  over  revolving  silk  sieves,  where  the  hulls  are  removed 
and  washed  free  from  adhering  gluten  and  starch,  which  pass  through 
the  fine  silk  cloth.  The  hulls,  separated  in  the  rotating  sieves,  are  partly 
dehydrated  and  then  thoroughly  dried  in  steam  dryers.  They  are  later 
mixed  with  the  gluten  to  form  "gluten  feed." 


208  CORX  AND  ("ORX-GROWIXG 

The  mixture  of  starch  and  gluten  suspended  in  water  and  ])assin<z' 
through  the  .sieves  during  the  separation  of  both  the  germ  and  hulls, 
is  run  off  at  a  regulated  speed  over  long  sloping  troughs  or  tables.  The 
starch  being  the  heavier  settles  down  into  a  solid  cake,  while  the  gluten 
suspension  runs  off  the  tables  as  tailings.  The  gluten  liquor  is  collected 
in  cone  settlers  where  it  is  concentrated.  The  concentrated  liquor  is 
filter  pressed  and  the  resulting  gluten  (containing  about  55  per  cent  pro- 
tein) is  dried  and  mixed  with  the  hulls  to  form  "gluten  feed."  To  this 
gluten  feed,  before  it  is  finally  dried,  is  also  added  the  concentrated 
steepwater,  containing  food  materials  which  were  dissolved  out  from 
the  corn. 

The  somewhat  solid  cake  of  starch  on  the  tables  is  removed  by 
churning  it  up  with  a  heavy  stream  of  water.  The  starch  liquor  is  filter 
pressed  and  the  press  cake  rapidly  dried  into  so-called  "pearl  starch,"  or 
pulverized  and  sold  as  powdered  starch.  For  food  purposes  the  starch  is 
subjected  to  a  number  of  washings  before  it  is  filter  pressed,  dried  and 
powdered.  These  .starches  find  their  way  into  the  market  in  bulk  or  in 
package  form  under  the  various  trade  names  such  as  "Buffalo,"  "Kings- 
ford  Silver  Glos.s,"  "Duryea"  or  "Argo  Gloss."  Some  of  these  starches 
are  also  made  in  crystal  and  in  lump  form.  For  laundry  purposes  there 
are  prepared  various  grades  called  "thin  boiling  starches."  Dextrines, 
used  for  making  adhesives,  sizing  mixtures,  etc.,  are  made  from  pow- 
dered starch. 

Dent  corn,  which  is  used  mo.stly  by  the  corn  products  industry,  con- 
tains practically  no  .sugar  of  any  kind.  Corn  sugars  and  syrups  are 
made  by  changing,  by  hydrolysis,  the  starch  into  the  sugar  or  syrup,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  process  is  briefly  as  follows :  The  starch  liquor 
from  the  tables  is  first  rewashed  and  then  pumped  into  large  vessels 
capable  of  being  ,subjected  to  high  pressures.  The  starch  liquor  is 
heated  in  these  convertors  with  a  very  small  amount  of  muriatic  or 
hydrochloric  acid  under  a  pressure  of  about  thirty-five  or  forty-five 
pounds,  depending  on  whether  it  is  desired  completely  to  change  the 
starch  into  sugar  or  only  partially  to  form  corn  syrup.  After  this  treat- 
ment the  liquor  (corn  sugar  or  syrup)  is  blown  into  large  tanks,  in 
which  the  muriatic  acid  is  neutralized  with  soda  ash.  As  a  result  of  the 
action  between  the  acid  and  soda  ash  there  is  formed  a  small  amount  of 
common,  harmless  salt  Avhich  is  found  in  traces  in  all  corn  sugar 
products.  After  the  neutralization  the  liquors  are  passed  through  a 
mechanical  separation  to  remove  the  suspended  matter  present.  To 
remove  color  these  liquors  are  run  over  bone  black  filters.  They  are 
then  partially  concentrated  in  vacuum  pans,  again  decolorized  with  bone 
black  and  finally  concentrated  by  evaporation  to  the  desired  gravity. 

The  sugar  liquor,  after  concentrating,  is  run  into  barrels,  where  it 
solidifies  on  cooling.  These  grades  are  used  in  many  industries,  among 
them  the  brewing,  tanning  and  sugar  color  making.  A  higher  grade 
sugar  is  made  by  running  out  the  concentrated  sugar  liquors  into  large 


COMMERCIAL  PRODTTCTS  OP  CORN  209 

boxes  in  which  it  solidifies.  When  hardened  to  a  certain  degree  it  is  cut 
into  small  rectangular  pieces.  These,  after  proper  curing,  are  wrapped 
in  press  cloths  and  placed  in  hydraulic  presses,  where  they  are  subjected 
to  a  high  pressure.  The  mother  liquor,  containing  non-crystallizable 
matter,  is  forced  out.  This  is  called  "hydrol"  and  corresponds  to  mo- 
lasses in  the  cane  sugar  industry.  The  sugar  cakes  are  then  broken  up, 
dried  and  pulverized.  Corn  sugar  produced  in  this  way  is  used  in 
baking,  manufacture  of  chewing  gum,  candies,  etc. 

Recently  a  new  method  for  the  production  of  an  extremely  pure  corn 
sugar  was  tried  out  and  found  to  be  successful.  In  this  method  the  sugar 
is  crystallized  out  of  the  sugar  liquor  under  slow  motion,  and  under 
conditions  paralleling  those  in  use  for  producing  white  cane  sugar.  This 
resulted  in  a  sugar  of  99.5  i)er  cent  purity,  i.  e.,  99.5  per  cent  pure  dex- 
trose. Previously  the  highest  purity  obtained  in  the  finished  sugar  was 
95  per  cent.  This  sugar,  "Refined  Cerelose, "  is  only  about  three-fifths 
as  sweet  as  cane  sugar,  but  carries,  pound  per  pound,  fully  as  much 
value  as  cane  sugar,  and  is  more  digestible  and  healthful.  A  slightly 
more  purified  sugar  has  been  used  recently  by  physicians  for  baby  feed- 
ing experiments.  The  corn  sugar  was  found  to  give  wonderful  results  in 
this  connection,  and,  as  a  result  many  physicians  are  prescribing  it 
continuously.  ' '  Refined  Cerelose ' '  has  been  found  to  be  satisfactory  for 
use  in  confectioner}',  ice  cream,  and  baking.  Its  use  for  condensed  or 
evaporated  milk  will  also  prove  satisfactory. 

Corn  Oil 

The  germs  after  drj-ing,  are  conveyed  to  cylindrical  steel  mills  and 
ground  to  a  fine  powder.  This  oil  meal  is  heated  and  passed  through 
presses.  The  cake  from  Avhich  the  oil  has  been  pressed  is  ground  up  and 
sold  as  oil  cake  meal.  The  oil  run  off  from  the  presses  goes  through  a 
refining  process,  in  which  it  is  filtered,  neutralized,  decolorized  and 
clarified,  deodorized  with  steam,  chilled  and  again  filtered.  This  results 
in  the  edible  corn  oil  of  commerce.  It  makes  an  excellent  salad  oil, 
which  many  housewives  believe  to  be  fully  equal  to  the  more  expensive 
olive  oil.  It  is  the  most  valuable  product  on  a  pound  basis  that  is  pro- 
duced from  corn. 

Corn  Products  Refining  Company 

For  man}'  years  the  starch  factories  seemed  to  find  it  difficult  to 
get  on  a  sound  financial  basis.  Stability  has  been  brought  into  the 
industry  in  recent  years  by  the  consolidation  of  a  number  of  plants  under 
the  name  of  the  Corn  Products  Refining  Company.  This  company'  has 
made  a  great  success,  and  has  done  much  toward  increasing  the  consump- 
tion of  corn  products  generally,  largely  by  popularizing  its  products 
with  the  retail  trade  under  trade  names,  such  as  "Karo, "  "Argo," 
"Cerelose,"  "Mazola,"  etc.  Previous  to  1915,  the  common  stock  of  this 
corporation  sold  customarily  on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  for 
considerably  less  than  $50  a  share,  whereas,  since  1920  it  has  sold  most 
of  the  time  for  considerably  over  $100  a  share.     This  company  probably 


210 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


buys  more  bushels  of  corn  annually  than  any  other  corporation  in  the 
world.  It  has  large  plants  at  Argo,  111. ;  Pekin,  111. ;  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
and  Edgewater,  N.  J.  There  are  three  independent  companies  in  the 
state  of  Iowa,  one  at  Cedar  Rapids,  one  at  Clinton,  and  another  at 
Keokuk,  w4th  an  approximate  grind  capacity  of  15,000,000  bushels  an- 
nually. The  three  Iowa  plants  together  have  a  capacity  almost  equal  to 
the  Argo  plant  of  the  Corn  Products  Company. 

Types  of  Corn  for  Wet  and  Dry  Processes 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  corn  meal  mills  and  the  starch  facto- 
ries are  best  served  by  different  types  of  corn.  While  both  appreciate 
a  corn  high  in  oil,  the  corn  meal  mills'  chief  product  is  made  out  of  the 


The  Penick  &  Ford  Corn  Products  Plant,  at  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa.  Wet  process 
plants  use  over  a  million  gallons  of  water  daily,  and  must  have  an  abun- 
dant water  supply. 

horny  starch,  whereas  the  starch  factories'  chief  product  is  made  out 
of  the  soft  starch  together  with  a  part  of  the  horny  starch.  The  corn 
meal  mills  sell  the  soft  starch  and  the  hulls  as  an  animal  feed,  whereas 
the  starch  factories  sell  the  glutinous  part  of  the  hard  starch  and  hulls 
as  animal  feed.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  a  flinty  corn  rich  in 
protein,  would  serve  the  corn  meal  mills  best,  whereas,  a  rather  soft  corn 
low  in  Drotein  would  serve  the  starch  factories  better. 


Miscellaneous  Products 

A  bushel  of  corn  can  be  made  into  2.')  gallons  of  alcoliol,  and  it  is 
possible  that  a  hundred  years  from  now  corn  alcohol  wall  be  extensively 
used  instead  of  gasoline  to  furnish  motive  power  for  automobiles  and 
trucks.  Roughly  estimated,  corn  at  90  cents  a  bushel  can  produce  alco- 
hol to  compete  with  gasoline  at  50  cents  a  gallon.     Before  the  war,  about 


COT^IMERCIAL  PRODUCTS  OF  CORN  211 

23,000,000  bushels  of  corn  Avere  used  annually  in  the  distillation  of  alco- 
hol, but  since  the  Volstead  act  only  three  or  four  million  bushels  have 
been  reported  to  the  revenue  officers  as  being  used  in  the  distillation 
of  alcohol.  One  of  the  less  important  but  very  interesting  corn  indus- 
tries is  the  manufacture  of  cob  pipes.  In  south-central  IMissouri,  they 
grow  one  of  the  largest-eared  varieties  of  corn  in  existence.  The  cobs 
of  this  Missouri  cob-pipe  variety  sell  to  the  pipe  factory  for  about  as 
much  as  ordinary  ear  corn  which  carries  the  kernels  as  well  as  the  cobs. 
About  .$500,000  worth  of  Missouri  cob  pipes  are  sold  annually. 

The  cobs  of  ordinary  corn  are  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  dye  known  as  furfural.  As  yet,  however,  no  very  strong  mar- 
ket for  ordinary  corn  cobs  has  been  found.  Many  miscellaneous  products 
of  little  importance  are  made  of  the  stalks  and  husks. 

The  ten  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  used  by  American  corn  industries 
plays  a  more  important  part  in  making  the  corn  market  than  many 
people  suspect.  These  industries  buy  a  large  part  of  the  corn  which 
comes  to  such  markets  as  Chicago,  and  the  competition  which  they  fur- 
nish plays  an  important  part  in  setting  the  price.  As  the  years  go  by, 
and  people  become  more  and  more  familiar  with  the  good  qualities  of 
food  products  made  out  of  corn,  it  is  probable  that  these  corn  industries 
will  be  able  to  compete  more  and  more  successfully  with  hogs  in  the 
furnishing  of  a  satisfactory  market  for  the  Corn  Belt  farmer's  corn. 


CHAPTER  38 

CORN  GROWING  OUTSIDE  OF  THE  CORN  BELT 

npHE  outstanding  corn  growing  areas  of  the  world  are  characterized 
by  a  mean  temperature  of  5G  to  70  degrees  at  planting  time,  a  mean 
temperature  of  67  to  81  degrees  at  tasseling  time,  a  rainfall  of  at  least 
five  inches,  one  year  with  another,  for  the  fifty-day  period  centering 
around  tasseling  time,  and  a  soil  moderately  rich  and  fairly  easy  to  cul- 
tivate. In  the  best  corn  producing  sections  of  Iowa  and  Illinois,  the 
mean  temperature  at  planting  time  is  around  61  degrees  and  at  tasseling 
time  around  75  degrees;  the  rainfall  averages  about  eight  inches,  one 
year  with  another,  during  the  fifty  days  centering  around  tasseling  time, 
and  the  soil  is  unusually  rich  and  easily  cultivated.  There  are  very  few 
large  bodies  of  land  in  the  world  which  possess  the  same  combination  of 
factors  so  favorable  to  corn  as  the  Corn  Belt.  Some  of  the  other  corn 
groAving  sections  are  described  in  the  following : 

Corn  Growing  in  the  Cotton  States 

Probably  more  corn  is  produced  in  the  cotton  states  than  any  other 
one  section  outside  of  the  Corn  Belt.  Ordinarily,  about  35,000,000  acres 
are  planted  in  these  states,  as  compared  with  about  50,000,000  acres  in 
the  Corn  Belt.  Because  of  poor  soil,  how^ever,  the  yield  averages  less 
than  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  total  output  of  corn  in  the  cotton 
South  is  less  than  half  as  much  as  in  the  Corn  Belt.  Nearly  all  of  the 
corn  raised  in  the  cotton  South  is  consumed  at  home.  Practically  none 
of  it  reaches  such  primary  markets  as  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis  and  Chicago. 

From  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  improved  land  of  the  cotton 
states  is  put  into  corn.  Cotton  has  first  place  in  the  eyes  of  the  southern 
farmers,  but  corn  is  a  close  second. 

In  such  cotton  states  as  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Mississipju  and 
Louisiana,  the  corn  is  generally  planted  during  March  or  early  April,  but 
may  be  planted  as  late  as  June  or  even  July.  Plowing  is  customarily 
done  in  the  form  of  beds  three  and  one-half  to  five  feet  wide.  First  a 
double  moldboard  plow,  called  a  middle  buster,  is  run  down  between 
where  the  rows  of  corn  or  cotton  were  the  previous  year.  Then  ground 
on  either  side  of  the  furrow  thus  made  is  turned  over  with  a  single 
shovel  turn  plow,  the  final  result  being  a  series  of  beds  about  four  feet 
wide,  with  furrows  five  or  six  inches  deep  in  between.  The  tojis  of  the 
beds  are  harrowed  off  and  the  corn  is  usually  planted  on  the  center  of 
the  beds  with  a  one-horse  corn  planter.  In  some  cases,  the  corn  is  planted 
in  the  furrows  between  beds.     In  the  western  part  of  the  Cotton  Belt, 


GROWING  OUTSIDE  OF  CORN  BELT 


213 


"where  the  rainfall  is  lighter,  they 
often  use  western  Corn  Belt  methods 
and  plow  level  or  list.  Listing-  also 
seems  to  be  growing  in  favor  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Cotton  Belt. 

The .  rate  of  planting  in  the 
South  is  usually  only  about  one-half 
as  thick  as  in  the  North,  except  on 
rich  bottom  lands.  On  exceptionally 
poor  soil,  the  rows  may  be  spaced  six 
feet  apart  and  the  kernels  two  feet 
apart  in  the  row. 

Cultivation  is  much  the  same  as 
in  the  North,  but  much  of  it  is  willi 
single-horse  cultivators.  In  parts  oL" 
the  South,  considerable  hand  hoeinu' 
is  done  at  the  rate  of  about  two  acres 
a  day. 

Because  many  of  the  soils  are 
poor,  corn  is  more  often  fertilized  in 
the  Cotton  Belt  than  it  is  in  the  Corn 
Belt.  A  mixture  which  often  gives 
very  good  results  is  one  hundred 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  two 
hundred  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal, 
applied  either  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing or  just  before  the  corn  is  planted.  Sometimes  fifty  or  a  hundred 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  are  added  to  this  mixture. 

The  southern  corn  root  worm  is  a  very  serious  pest  in  the  South, 
and  often  damages  the  corn  planted  in  March  and  early  April  very 
severely.  Especially  is  this  true  in  cold,  wet  seasons.  Corn  planted  in 
]\Iay  ordinarily  is  not  bothered.  On  well-drained  land,  where  this  pest 
usually  causes  but  little  trouble,  it  seems  to  be  the  best  policy  to  plant 
in  March  or  early  April. 

Throughout  the  cotton  states,  the  prolific  varieties  which  average 
nearly  two  ears  to  the  stalk  and  oftentimes  as  many  as  three,  are  far 
more  popular  than  the  single-ear  varieties  which  are  almost  universally 
grown  in  the  Corn  Belt.  The  ears  of  these  prolific  varieties  are  only 
about  three-fourths  as  large  as  the  ears  of  the  single-ear  sorts,  but  under 
southern  conditions,  the  average  prolific  plant  yields  about  15  per  cent 
more  than  the  average  plant  of  the  single-ear  type.  The  typical  ear  of 
prolific  corn  carries  twelve  or  fourteen  rows  and  the  kernels  are  rather 
flinty  with  a  very  smooth  dent.  The  husks  of  well-bred  southern  varie- 
ties fit  tightly  to  the  corn  and  carry  out  well  past  the  tip,  this  husk  pro- 
tection being  valued  in  the  South  because  of  the  corn  ear  worm  and 
weevil,  which  cause  very  severe  damage  to  varieties  with  loose  husks. 


An 


extreme    example    of 
prolific  corn. 


:u 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROWING 


';«»"** 

•LS.W" 


UNITED  STATES 
AND  CANADA 

CORN  (MAIZE) 

(CUT  FOR  GRAIN) 

ACREAGE 


Compare  this  map  with  the  maps  of  the  Argentine  corn  belt  and  the  European 
corn  belt.  In  each  case,  the  clots  represent  5,000  acres.  In  the  United 
States,  as  in  Argentina,  very  little  corn  is  grown  where  the  summer  rainfall 
is  less  than  eight  inches.  Note  that  corn  is  grown  uniformly  in  the  cotton 
states,  but  that  the  density  of  corn  planting  is  not  equal  to  that  in  the  corn 
belts  of  Argentina  and  Europe.  (Courtesy  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 


Climatic  conditions  in  the  cotton  states  are  quite  favorable  to  corn, 
although  the  weather  is  frequently  too  dry  at  tasseling  time  for  the 
best  results.  The  rainfall  is  usually  sufficient  to  produce  an  abundant 
crop,  and  the  cotton  states  would  undoubtedly  be  another  Corn  Belt  if 
the  soil  were  only  richer.  As  it  is,  nearly  all  of  the  records  of  corn 
yielding  over  two  hundred  bushels  per  acre  have  come  from  the  South, 
such  results  being  obtained  by  planting  corn  thickly  on  land  heavily 
fertilized.  The  corn  yields  of  the  South  will  increase  in  the  future  as 
the  South  grows  more  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  crimson  clover, 
peanuts  and  live  stock.  As  long  as  the  cotton  states  plant  over  33,000,000 
acres  of  land  to  cotton  every  year,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  will  ever  produce 
much  more  than  twenty  bu.shels  of  corn  per  acre  on  the  average. 


GROWING  OUTSIDE  OF  CORN  BELT  215 

Corn  Growing  in  Argentina 

The  Argentine  corn  belt  is  located  about  six  hundred  miles  nearer 
the  equator  than  the  American  corn  belt.  At  planting  time,  in  November 
(some  corn  is  planted  as  early  as  late  September  and  some  as  late  as 
December),  the  temperature  is  usually  about  five  degrees  higher  than 
in  the  Corn  Belt  during  May.  At  tasseling  time,  in  January,  the  tem- 
perature is  about  the  same  as  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States.  The 
rainfall  during  the  fifty  days  centering  around  tasseling  time  averages 
about  the  same  as  in  our  corn  belt,  but  there  is  a  little  greater  danger  of 
really  severe  drouth.  Moreover,  there  is  occasional  severe  damage  caused 
by  the  langosta  (a  grasshopper),  which  comes  in  droves  from  northern 
Argentina  and  southern  Brazil.     The  soil  is  deep  and  exceptionally  rich. 

Year  by  year,  since  1909,  the  acreage,  the  average  acre  yield  (in  bush- 
els), and  the  exports  from  Argentina  (in  bushels),  have  been  as  follows: 

Av.  Acre  Yield       Acreage  Exports 
(000  omitted)    (000  omitted) 

1909 24.3                    7,349  89,499 

1910 23.7                   7,425  104,727 

1911 3.5                   7,945  4,923 

1912 35.2                   8,456  190,351 

1913 20.9                   9,464  189,328 

1914 25.5  10,260  139,458 

1915 31.3  10,386  170,488 

1916 16.3                   9,928  113,140 

1917 6.5                   8,969  35,190 

1918 19.6                   8,715  26,170 

1919 27.0                    8,252  97,850 

1920 31.3                    8,184  173,642 

1921 28.5                   8,090  111,603 

1922 24.1                   7,344  109,101* 

1923 19.5*  7,851* 

*Preliminary  figures. 

Corn  production  in  Argentina  from  1911  to  1922  averaged  200,000,- 
000  bushels,  and  the  exports  averaged  113,000,000  bushels.  Argentine 
live  stock  apparently  consumes  on  the  average  about  85,000,000  bushels 
annually,  or  less  than  half  the  crop,  whereas  in  the  United  States  live 
stock  consumes  about  80  per  cent  of  the  crop.  The  great  barriers  to 
increased  live  stock  con.sumption  of  corn  in  Argentina  are  the  splendid 
alfalfa  pastures  and  the  fact  that  occasionally,  as  in  1911  and  1917,  the 
crop  is  almost  an  entire  failure.  In  such  years,  a  live  stock  industry 
built  on  corn  suffers  the  greatest  inconvenience.  The  possibilities  of 
Argentina  as  a  pork-exporting  nation  are  a  little  uncertain  as  long  as 
there  is  the  probability  of  almost  complete  crop  failure  once  in  every 
five  or  ten  years.     In  this  respect,  Kansas  and  Argentina  are  much  alike. 

Argentine  corn  is  planted  in  rows  about  two  and  a  half  feet  apart, 
with  the  stalks  about  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  American  listers 
are  much  in  favor  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Argentine  corn  belt. 


216 


CORN  AXn  CORN-GROWING 


The  Argentine   chacarero    (share  renter)   husks  into  baskets  and   dumps   the 
baskets  when  full  into  sacks  at  the  end  of  the  field. 

They  use  a  three-row  corn  planter  in  some  sections,  but  set  it  to  drill 
rather  than  cheek.  Some  of  the  more  backward  farmers  broadcast  their 
corn  and  plow  it  under.     Argrentine  corn  is  not  cultivated  as  much  as 


The  Argentine  corn  crib  (troje)  has  sides  made  of  corn  stalks. 


GROWING  OUTSIDE  OF  CORN  BELT 


217 


American  corn.  Corn  husking  is 
at  its  height  in  April,  May  and 
early  June.  The  corn  is  husked 
into  baskets  about  the  size  of  large 
waste  baskets,  and  then  poured 
into  large  sacks,  and  the  sacks  are 
dragged  to  the  edge  of  the  field, 
where  they  are  picked  up  with  a 
team  and  wagon,  and  the  corn  is 
hauled  to  a  crib  the  sides  of  which 
are  made  of  corn  stalks.  Many  of 
these  are  round  and  much  like  the 
temporary,  uncovered  fence  cribs 
seen  here  and  there  in  the  Corn 
Belt. 

Much  of  the  surplus  corn  is 
shelled  on  the  farm  and  shipped 
by  rail  to  Rosario  (the  Chicago  of 
Argentina),  Avhich  is  about  two 
hundred  miles  away  from  the  typ- 
ical farm.  Rosario  is  an  ocean 
port,  and  the  cost  of  shipping 
from  Rosario  to  either  New  York 
or  Liverpool  is  usually  slightly 
less  than  the  cost  of  shipping  from 
Argentine  corn  production  is  centered  Chicago  to  New  York.  The  Ar- 
in   northern    Buenos   Aires,    southwest-  •         ^ 

ern  Entre  Rios,  southern  Santa  Fe  and  gentme  farmer  really  has  lower 
southeastern  Cordoba.  Very  little  corn  transportation  costs  separating 
is  grown   southwest  of  the   eight-inch    j  j      ^  ^    f  ^^    ^-     ^larkets 

line  of  summer  rainfall.     Rosario,  the  ,        *  • 

Chicago    of   Argentina,   on    the    River   of  the  world  than  the  American 
Plata,  is  a  port  for  ocean  going  vessels    farmer 
and  is  located  in  the  center  of  densest  rj.^^  ^^^^  popular  Argentine 

is   the    Canario,    a    twelve- 


corn  production.     (Courtesy  of  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


corn 

rowed  yellow  flint  with  ears  seven 
or  eight  inches  long.  The  Piamontese  and  Colorado  are  almost  equally 
popular  and  are  very  similar  except  that  the  yellow  color  is  so  deep  as  to 
suggest  a  tinge  of  red.  The  kernels  of  Argentine  flints  are  much  smaller 
and  shinier  than  the  kernels  of  New  England  flints.  In  one  hundred 
pounds  of  dry  corn,  the  Argentine  flints  typically  carry  one  and  one-half 
to  two  pounds  more  of  protein,  one-half  pound  more  of  fat,  and  two 
pounds  less  of  starch  than  our  Corn  Belt  dents.  Argentine  shelled  corn 
often  weighs  60  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  occasionally  as  much  as  64 
pounds. 

The  stalks  of  Argentine  flints  are  very  sturdy  and  decidedly  wind 
resistant.  The  ears  have  large  shanks  and  close  fitting  husks  and  are 
much  harder  to  husk  than  Reid  Yellow  Dent.  Argentine  varieties  are 
apparently  well  adapted  to  machine  husking.     Ordinarily,  the  Argentine 


218 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROWING 


varieties  yield  about  three-fourths  as  well  as  Reid  Yellow  Dent  on  the 
same  land. 

In  Argentina  there  are  about  18,000,000  acres  of  alfalfa,  14,000,000 
acres  of  wheat,  8,000,000  acres  of  corn,  4,000,000  acres  of  flax  and 
3,000,000  acres  of  oats.     It  is  possible  for  Argentina  to  put  about  25,- 


In  this  map,  as  in  the  Argentine  and  United  States  maps,  one  dot  equals  5,000 
acres.  Most  of  the  European  corn  is  grown  in  the  Danube  region  and  in 
northern  Italy.  The  European  corn  belt  centers  around  latitude  48,  or  far- 
ther away  from  the  equator  than  either  the  United  States  or  the  Argentine 
corn  belt.    (Courtesy  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


000,000  acres  into  corn  3'ear  after  year,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  this  w^ill 
be  done  until  they  have  a  different  type  of  corn  farmer.  The  Argentine 
corn  farmer  is  typically  a  share  renter  (chacarero),  who  lives  in  a  hovel 
and  keeps  no  live  stock.  He  ordinarily  handles  one  hundred  acres  of 
corn  and  nothing  else.  A  man  of  this  sort  will  not  give  corn  the  inten- 
sive care  which  will  enable  it  to  compete  effectively  with  wheat  and 
alfalfa  for  the  use  of  the  land. 

During  the  five-year  period  before  the  war,  Argentina  furnished 
about  50  per  cent  of  the  corn  which  moved  across  international  boun- 
daries. The  Danube  basin  in  southeastern  Europe  furnished  about  30 
per  cent,  and  the  United  States  about  15  per  cent.  Because  Argentine 
corn  is  found  to  such  an  extent  on  the  world  market,  it  is  worth  while 
studying  the  Argentine  corn  situation  Avith  some  care. 

Corn  Growing  in  the  Danube  Basin 
In  the  Balkan  States,  Hungary  and  Bessarabia  is  located  the  Euro- 
pean corn  belt.  The  total  acreage  is  about  17,000,000  acres,  or  about 
as  much  land  as  is  put  in  corn  in  Iowa  and  Missouri  put  together.  Since 
the  peace  treaty,  half  of  this  corn  land  is  in  Greater  Roumania,  The 
yield  is  typically  around  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  with  occasional  years 
of  failure  when  the  yield  is  only  ten  bushels.     The  summer  temperature 


GROWING  OUTSIDE  OF  CORN  BELT  219 

averages  about  three  degrees  less  than  in  central  Iowa  and  Illinois.  The 
annual  rainfall  is  about  twenty  inches,  or  about  the  same  as  western 
Nebraska. 

Drouth,  insects,  floods  and  hail  often  cause  severe  damage.  Corn 
is  customarily  grown  in  rotation  with  wheat,  moderately  early  flint 
varieties  being  preferred,  so  that  they  can  be  gotten  off  in  time  to  seed 
*\vinter  Avheat.  The  flints  seem  to  be  largely  of  the  twelve-row,  small 
seeded  type,  somewhat  similar  to  the  Argentine  flints.  In  large  sec- 
tions of  the  Balkans  they  broadcast  the  corn  in  April  and  plow  it  under, 
and  then  when  the  corn  and  weeds  are  about  three  inches  high  they 
go  through  with  a  large  hand  hoe  and  cut  out  the  weeds  and  surplus  corn 
and  hill  up  the  earth  around  each  plant.  Very  few  corn  planters  are 
used,  even  on  the  larger  estates,  where  scientific  methods  of  growing 
wheat  are  general.  Where  the  land  is  plowed  before  planting,  the  cus- 
tomary method  of  planting  is  to  drop  by  hand  into  holes  made  with  a 
pointed  stick. 

The  corn  is  quite  commonly  harvested  by  cutting  the  stalks  off  with 
a  hoe  and  finally  husking  and  storing  in  a  crib  made  of  woven  saplings 
and  thatched  with  straw. 

In  Hungary,  the  methods  are  possibly  a  little  better  than  this,  but 
on  the  whole  the  Danube  corn  is  produced  by  a  very  ignorant  class  of 
peasants  M'ho  know  absolutely  nothing  about  modern  methods  of  corn 
growing.  A  large  part  of  the  Danube  corn  crop,  Avhich  is  not  exported, 
is  consumed  by  the  peasants,  the  per  capita  consumption  being  about 
twelve  bushels,  or  probably  higher  than  that  of  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  The  extent  to  %vhich  the  Danube  corn  is  eaten  by  human  beings 
may  explain  whj^  the  small  seeded  flints  are  so  extensively  grown. 

Before  the  war,  the  surplus  Danube  and  Argentine  corn  quite  large- 
ly determined  corn  prices  at  Liverpool,  Amsterdam  and  Hamburg.  Dent 
corn  from  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States  occasionally  had  some  in- 
fluence in  years  of  exceptionally  large  crops. 

Corn  Growing  in  Mexico 

Mexico,  the  original  home  of  corn,  until  the  death  of  Diaz  grew  a 
larger  acreage  than  any  other  nation  aside  from  the  United  States.  A 
large  percentage  of  the  crop  land  of  southwestern  Mexico  is  put  in  corn. 
The  3'ield  is  low  and  the  crop  is  consumed  entirely  at  home  by  people 
(in  the  form  of  tortillas)  rather  than  by  animals. 

Corn  in  Western  Europe 

Italy  M'ith  4,000,000  acres,  Spain  Avith  1,500,000  acres,  and  southern 
France  with  1,000,000  acres,  are  the  chief  corn  growing  countries  of  Avest- 
ern  Europe.  The  small  seeded  flints  are  in  greatest  favor.  Much  of 
the  Italian  corn  is  groAvn  under  irrigation.  The  crop  is  used  chiefly 
as  food  by  the  peasants.  All  of  Avestern  Europe  put  together  produces 
less  than  half  as  much  corn  as  loAva.  Italy,  the  leading  corn  country  of 
AAestern  Europe,  imports  scA'cral  million  bushels  annually. 


220  CORN  AND  CORX  GROWING 

Corn  Growing  in  South  Africa 

In  the  southeastern  part  of  South  Africa  is  a  large  section  of  land 
about  a  mile  above  sea  level  "where  the  season  is  long  and  the  summer 
rainfall  is  just  right  for  corn.  The  temperature  is  ideal  except  that 
during  the  middle  of  the  summer  it  averages  around  68  degrees,  or  about 
four  degrees  too  low.  The  chief  drawback  is  a  rather  poor  soil.  Never- 
theless, wonderful  progress  in  corn  growing  has  been  made  since  1900, 
and  there  is  a  possibility  that  South  Africa  may  rank  eventually  with 
Argentina  and  the  Danube  basin  in  providing  western  Europe  with  corn. 
The  favorite  South  African  variety  is  Hickory  King,  a  large  seeded, 
late  maturing,  twelve-row  dent,  which  is  also  popular  on  the  poorer 
soils  of  the  northern  edge  of  the  Cotton  Belt. 

^Modern  corn  growing  methods  are  employed  in  South  Africa  and 
some  very  good  English  and  Boer  brains  are  continually  at  work  on  the 
problem  of  increasing  South  African  corn  production.  The  South 
Africans  seem  to  have  their  eyes  fixed  quite  firmly  on  the  export  market. 

Corn  Growing  in  Asia  and  Africa 

Nearly  100,000,000  bushels  are  grown  every  year  in  India,  but  it 
is  all  consumed  at  home.  Considerable  corn  is  also  grown  in  China. 
Corn  in  Asia  is  infected  with  a  serious  disease  which  has  not  yet  reached 
the  United  States. 

Egypt  grows  on  her  fertile  irrigated  Nile  soil  about  60,000,000 
bushels  annually,  but  none  of  it  leaves  the  country. 

The  Negro  tribes  of  interior  Africa  have  grown  considerable  corn 
for  home  consumption  for  several  centuries.  There  is  no  prospect, 
however,  that  any  part  of  Africa  aside  from  southeastern  South  Africa, 
will  ever  produce  much  corn  for  export. 


CHAPTER  39 


CORN  STATISTICS 


nPHE  statistical  tables  in  the  following-  are  compiled  (except  where 
otherwise  noted)  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
publications.  Students  who  wish  to  keep  these  tables  up-to-date  may 
consult  future  Year-books  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  Weath- 
er, Markets  and  Crops. 


Table  XVI— World  Corn  Production  Before  and  Since  the  War 

(Figures  given  in  thousands  of  bushels) 
NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE 


Country 


North  America- 
Canada*  17,2971 

United  States*  |  2,712,364! 

Mexico*   I      164,6571 

Guatemala  | | 

Total  North  American  countries  marked  *| 

Europe —  | 

France*    I 

Spain*   I 

Portugal  I 

Italy*   ii 

Switzerland*    j 


I 

14,904|  13,798 

)68,569|  2,890,712 

61,021|  78,737 

6,666|  4,828 


2,894,3181  3,144,494    2,983,247 


22,289| 
26,548| 
15,000| 
100,349|b 
113| 
14,536 

I 

168,081] 
I 


Austria*    |a 

Czechoslovakia*  |.. 

Hungary*   |a 

Yugoslavia*    |.. 

Serbia,    Bosnia-Herzegovina    and    Croatia-        I  | 

slavonia*   &  62,112| 

Greece*  |c  5,952 j 

Bulgaria*    |a  28,219| 

Roumania*    la  100,6201d 

Poland  I I 

Russia,  including  Ukraine  and  Northern  Cau-  |  j 

casia  _ |a  70,222| 

Total  European  countries  marked  * '. 

Africa—                                                                          '     \  \                  \ 

Morocco,  Western  I \  5,886| 

Algeria*  |  4611             354 

Tunis  |e  228|e           354 

Egypt    I  64,2201        67,165 


I 
10,3931 

24.8971 

11,374| 

96,775!b 

217| 

2,521|b 

9,432j 

31,7031 

73.788] 

I 

I 

7,8741 

24,172| 

106,333] 

2,266] 

I 

I 


13,621 
26,832 

76,768 

185 

3,703 

8,996 

32,493 

57,400 


19,802 

94,207 

2,776 


522,867]      380,231|      334,007 


4,564 
276 


Total  African  countries  marked  * ] 


461] 


354] 


276 


(Continued  on  Next  Page) 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


Table  XVI— World  Corn  Production  Before  and  Since  the  War 

(Continued  from  Preceding  Page) 


Asia- 
India    British*                                               

87,240 
3,637| 
2.2361 
7,446i 

83,320 
4,281 

16,734 

96  240 

Chosen  

Philippines*  

14,645 

94,686| 

100,054 

110,885 

Total    northern    hemisphere    countries 
marked  *  

1 
3,512,3321 

3,625,133 

3,428,415 

SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE 

9 

a 

Average 
1908-09  to 
1912-13 

1921-22 

00 

eg 

<M 

05 

Chile  

Uruguay  

Argentina*    

Union  of  South  Africa 
Southern  Rhodesia*   ... 

Java  and  Madura  

Australia   

New  Zealand  


1,390| 


2,030] 


1          6,027 

4,8051 

1      174,502 

176,1711 

153,141 

If      32,588 

43,3601 

50,390 

!c        1,404 

2,3671 

5,000 

i 

46,8211 

49,612 

10,264! 
4931 


488| 


Total  southern  hemisphere  countries  marked  *|      208,494]      221,S 


208,531 


Total  world  countries  marked  * |  3,720,826]  3,847,031]  3,636.946 

♦Indicates  countries  reporting  for  all  periods. 

a — Old   boundaries. 

b — Includes  new  territory. 

c — One  year  only. 

d — Winchester  bushels. 

e — Includes  sorghum. 

f — Three-year  average 


CORN  STATISTICS 


223 


Table  XVII— World  Corn  Acreage  Before  and  Since  the  War 

(Figures  given  in  thousands  of  acres) 

NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE 


Country  g  ^ 

(T)  OS  iH  C<I 

'       s;  o  c^i  (M 

North  America —                                            i                   |  11 

Canada* |             309|  297|  318| 

United  States  |      104,229|  103,740!  102,428! 

Mexico*  I        11,554|  2,545[  3,212| 

Guatemala    j |  310|  4681 

Total  North  American  countries!                   |  |  ] 

marked  *  |      116,092|  106,o82|  105,9581 

Europe —                                                         I                  I  I  I 

France*  |a        1,155!  814|  790| 

Spain*   I          1,134!  1,178!  1,1591 

Portugal    ! I  714|  | 

Italy*  |a        3,931!b  3,S22!b  3,S24| 

Switzerland*    !                 3|  5!  4| 

Austria*    |a           761|  112|b  148| 

Czechoslovakia*  ! !  3851  395! 

Hungary*   !a        6,038|  2,167!  l.'716| 

Yugoslavia*  ! !  4,6461  4,786' 

Serbia,  Bosnia-Herzegovina  and         I                   I  I  I 

Croatia-Slavonia*    la        3,059|  |  | 

Greece  |c           2731  494  ! 

Bulgaria*  la        1,544!  1,4181  1,552| 

Roumania*    |a        5,143!  8,5101  8,411! 

Poland    ! I  1321  183! 

Russia,  including  Ukraine  and           I                   I  I  I 

northern  Caucasia  |a        3,923|  |  | 

Total  European  countries  marked  *7|        22,768!  23,057!  22,785! 

Africa—                                                       n                  \  r 

Morocco,  Western  ! |  6101  5351 

Algeria*  !               34|  24!  19| 

Tunis  !d             43!d  551  | 

Egypt  ■■■!          1,857!  2,0861 \_ 

Total  African  countries  marked  *....|               34!  24!  l^j 

Asia-                            n         \  \  r 

India,  British*  !          6,340!  6,1641  6,186i 

Japan  !             130!  153|  i 

Chosen  

Philippines*  

Total  Asiatic  countries  marked 

Total  northern  hemisphere  coun-     I                  |  |  I 

tries  marked  *  |      146,226!  137,171|  136,277| 

(Continued  on  Next  Page) 


103,112 


781 


156| 
9921 

1 
1,344! 

1 
1,329! 

....!          7,332| 

7,508| 

7,515| 

224 


rOKX  AXD  COKX-GROAYIXG 


Table  XVII— World  Corn  Acreage  Before  and  Since  the  War 
(Continued  from  Preceding  Page) 

SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE 


Country 


<js; 


c^ 

CO 

M 

M 

tH 

Chile*   : 

561 

551| 

8,128| 

2,171| 

1 

63| 

6741 

7.3441 

1 

182| 

3,690| 

1 

11| 

68| 

1 

Uruguay    

7,851| 
1 

Union  of  South  Africa 

2151 

3,880| 

Java  and  Madura 

1 

352| 
10| 

New  Zealand 

Total   southern  hemisphere  coun- 
tries marked  * 

8,1841 

7,407 

1 
7,919| 

Total  world  countries  marked  * 

154,4101 

144,5781 

144,1961 

♦Indicates  countries  reporting  for  all  periods  except  1923. 

a — Old  boundaries. 

b — Includes  new  territory. 

c — One  year  only. 

d — Includes  sorghum. 

e — Three-year  average. 


CORN  STATISTICS 


225 


Table  XVIII— World  Corn  Trade 
(Figures  given  in  thousands  of  bushels) 


Country 


Principal  exporting  countries 

Argentina  

British  South  Africa  

Bulgaria  

Roumania    

Russia    

United  States  

Uruguay    

Principal  importing   countries 

Austria-Hungary    

Belgium   

Canada    

Cuba 

Denmark    

Egypt   

France    

Germany    

Italy    

Mexico    

Netherlands  

Norway    

Portugal    

Spain  

Sweden   

Switzerland    

United  Kingdom  

Other  countries  


2  115,749! 


257 

44 

176 


4,115| 

9,3071 

38,966| 

335|   30,034| 

1,2261  45,054| 

51        210 


637i 

(1)1 
429 

7,7S4J 


i  13,877| 
!  25,8011 
I  10,629| 
i  2,7461 
''  11,4401 
I  471| 
18.7081 
!  32,160] 
I  14,895! 
I  4,4041 
!  29,5801 
i  1,079|. 
!  1,674| 
I  9,775j 
I  1,476| 
I  3,9871 
I  82,976i 
I     3,268| 


1173,642 
5,149 
4,1S5| 
17,329| 

21,230] 

(1)1 


1111,603 

23  20,133 
(1)]  696 
(1):   30,280 

1641132,186 
i        209 


268*  5 

,130|  10 

25]  10 

(1)1  3 

61  9 

61] 

82]  17, 

II  16 

2061  12 

82J 
,7501  15 
I  2 


124 
,513 

,793 

,217 
822] 
948] 
609| 
,099] 
,599| 


2,327]  19, 

113]  12, 

4]  18, 

1|  1. 

858]  12, 

(1)1 

4]  17, 


566]          37    35, 
623] 3 


699 
,386 
455 
I 
575 
,604| 
466] 

I 
,965] 

I 
,643 

,5281 


44|     7, 
261     1, 

1] 
96]   71, 
8_17l     3,' 
rotal |270,991!271,026Tl98,736|232,551]230,8431360,640 


505] 
963] 

057| 
29| 


188]  11, 

41|  4, 

(1)]  5, 

67|  78, 

7,3761  2, 


906 
186! 
107! 
194' 
942i 


M29 
110 

434 
397 
600 


355 


576 


65 

1,856 


(1)  Less  than  500. 


'Ausiria  only. 


226 


CnnX  AND  CDKX-GROAVIXG 


Table  XIX — Corn  Exports  from  the  United  States  by  Countries  to 

Which  Exported 

(Figures  given  in  thousands  of  bushels) 


Country 


CO 
05 

05 

o 

05 

05 

Belgium   |  1,388| 

Denmark  I  2,494i. 

France    i  604| 

Germany    1  5,232|. 

Italy    i  12| 

Netherlands    I  5,111| 

Norway   !  451 |. 

Spain   (  21 |. 

Sweden   ! ! |. 


3,4671     1,0101 

I        335| 

1.3701         (1)1 

I i 

2,196i I. 

461        lOOi 


72| 

173| 

191| 

1,324| 


4241 
(1)1 


Portugal    i  153!               | 

Russia  in  Europe  j  1| | 

United  Kingdom  !  10,906|  15,65S| 

Ukraine    i | | 

Mexico   I  2,501|     2,736| 

Cuba   !  2,3011     1,074| 

Canada  i  8,379|  13,229| 

Other  countries   I  681!        123 


l,560i 

5,965| 

5481 

12,7291 

2481 

17,843] 

95| 

I I  501 

I I        7921 

I  I  I 

I I I 

9481     2,7071   15,811| 

I I I 

1341        771|  11,8721 

1,965|     1,8941     2,3091 

6,5421   10,0651   58,583| 

159|        140|        570| 


4,920 
6,519 
3,818 

30,282 
2,059 

21,729 
1,318 
2,388 


5,876 
28,660 
2,836 
3,351 
2,764 
45,339 
1,087 


Total    I  39,810|   39,899!   11,1931   17,761!128,975jl63,609 

*Fiscal  years  ending  June  30.  (1)  Less  than  500. 

Source — Compiled  from  publicaticns  and  records  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce, originating  in  the  customs  records  of  the  Treasury  Department. 

Table  XX — Corn  Imports  Into  the  United  Kingdom 

(Figures  given  in  bushels) 


Country 


Russia  I  7,488,7581 

Bulgaria    I  939,400 

Roumania    \  10,652,760]     6,347,400] 

Turkey  in  Europe  :  164,080] ] 

Turkey  in  Asia I  89,120] 

Egypt    ]  17,120] 

Morocco  1  23,760] 

United  States  ]  13,580,470] 

Uruguay  ]  59,720] 

Argentina  ]  45,495,513] 

British  West  Africa  I  202,240] 

British  South  Africa  ]  1,669,978 

British  India  I  1,421,760] 

Canada  ] 

Other  countries  ! 

Total  


1,085,3201*11,578,400 
317,368]     1,825,000 


]   83,207,367]  73,514,566]  74,400,204 


*Most  of  this  was  United  States  corn  shipped  by  way  of  Canada. 
(1)  If  any,  included  in  "other  countries." 

Source — Annual  statement  of  the  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  with  foreign 
countries  and  British  possessions. 


CORN  STATISTICS 


227 


Table  XXI — Corn  Acreage,  Production,  Value  and  Exports  in  the  United 
States,  1849-1922 

Note — Figures  in  bold  face  are  census  returns;  figures  in  roman  are  esti- 
mates of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Estimates  of  acres  are  obtained  by 
applying  estimated  percentages  of  increase  or  decrease  to  the  published  acreage 
of  the  preceding  year,  except  that  a  revised  base  is  used  for  applying  percentage 
estimates  whenever  new  census  data  are  available.  Acreages  have  been  revised 
for  years  1890-1908,  so  as  to  be  consistent  with  the  following  as  well  as  the  pre- 
ceding census  acreage,  and  total  production  and  farm  values  are  adjusted 
accordingly. 


1,769,6161 


7,632, 

4,248,991 

454,535|  24,242,396 

617,780!  69,091,110 

648,785!  59,293,085 


1896 

1897  ., 

1898  ., 

1899  . 

1900  . 

1901  . 

1902  . 

1903  . 

1904  . 

1905  . 

1906  . 

1907  . 

1908  . 

1909  . 
1910* 

1911  . 

1912  . 

1913  . 

1914  . 

1915  . 

1916  . 

1917  . 

1918  . 

1919  . 
1920* 

1921  . 
1922* 


86,5601 
88,127J 
88,304! 
94,914 
95,042 

28.9!   2,503,484] 
24.3    2,144,553! 
25.6    2,261,1191 
25.9|  2,454,628! 
26.4|  2,505,148! 

21.3 
26.0 
28.4 
29.9 
35.1 

532,884|178,S17,417 
558,309|212,055,543 
642,747!177,255,046 
734,9161213,123,412 
878,2431181,405,473 

94,636j 
95,517! 
90,661! 
93,3401 
93,5731 

17.0    1,613,528!' 
27.4|  2,619,499! 
25.9!  2,346,897! 
27.1!  2,528,662! 
29.4|  2,748,949! 
1                    1 

60.1!      969,2851   28,028,688 
40.1|   1,049,7911   76,639,261 
42.1|      987,882,   58,222,061 
43.7!   1,105,690!  90.293,483 
40.8!   1,120,513!119,893,833 
1 

98,643 
94,9711 
95,603! 
98.3831 
104,0351 

30.9|  2,897,6621 
26.5!   2,512,0651 
26.61  2,544,9571 
26.1!  2,572,3361 
27.71  2,886,260! 

39.3    1,138,0531 
50.91   1,277,607! 
60.0    1,527,679 
58.61   1,507,185! 
48.0!   1,384,8171 

86,368,228 
55,063,860 
37,665,040 
38,128,498 
65,614,522 

105,8251 
107,083! 
105,8201 
103,435! 
106,197! 

23.9|  2,531,488! 
29.2|  3,124,7461 
23.11  2,446,9881 
25.8J   2,672,804! 
28.2!  2,994,793! 

61.8!   1,565,2581 
48.7!  1,520,454! 
69.11   1,692,092! 
64.4|   1,722,070! 
57.51  1,722,680! 

41,797,291 
50,780,143 
10,725,819 
50,668,303 
39,896,928 

105,296 
116,730! 

104,467! 

97.1701 

101,699! 

24.4    2,566,9271     88.9    2,280,729] 
26.31  3,065,233!   127.9!  3,920,228! 
24.01  2,502,6651   136.5!   3,416,240| 
28.9!  2.811,302!  134.5!   3,780,597! 
31.5!  3,208,5841     67.0]  2,150,332! 
1                    1 

66,753.294 
49,073,263 
23,018,822 
16,728.746 
70,905,781 

103,7401 

102,4281 

29.6!  3,068,569 
28.2!  2,890,7121 

42.31  1,297,2131179,514,442 

65.71  1,900,2871 

"Acreage  adjusted  to  census  basis. 


22S 


COKX  AND  CORX-GKOWrXG 


Table  XXII — Corn  Production  and  Distribution  in  the  United  States^ 

1897-1922 


Year              -g  g  |  || 

CO  ^  o  >  ^^ 

o  -jg  ^  ^-z 

1897-1901    1   160,8091  2,195,795| 

1902-1906    i     91,662|  2,628,334| 

1907    !   129,7861  2,512,065| 

1908    1     69,2511  2,544,9571 

1909    1     77-4031  2.572,3361 

i             i  ! 

1910    1   113,9191  2,886,2601 

1911    1   123,824|  2,531,488 

1912    1     64,764i  3,124,746| 

1913    1   137,9721  2,446,988] 

1914    i     80,0461  2,672,804] 

'                 I  I 

1915    !     96,0091  2,994,793| 

1916    i     S7,908|  2,566,9271 

1917    1     34,448|  3,065,233] 

1918    1   114,678  2,502,6651 

1919    ]     69,835]  2,811,302] 

I                 I  I 

1920    ]   139,0831  3,208,584] 

1921    ]   285,769]  3,068,569] 

1922*    ]   177,287]  2,890.712] 

*Preliminarv  estimate. 


sS     i     o^ 


o  :^ 

o  7i 


1= 

,-H  o 


o    .-^ 

o 

o 


o 


83.3]  85.6] 

88.1]  82.2[ 

82.8]  77.2] 

86.9]  88.2! 

84.2]  82.7] 

I  ! 

87.21  86.4] 

80. 6|  80.1] 

85.5]  85.01 

82. 2|  80.1] 

85.1]  84.5] 

I  I 

77.21  71.11 

83.8]  83.9| 

75.2|  60.0] 

85.6]  82.4] 

89.1]  87.11 


I  I 

89.6]  86.9] 

84.01  87.5] 

85.0]  88.3] 


2,005,697] 
2,170,417] 
1,939,877] 
2,244,571] 
2,126,965] 

2,492,763] 
2,027,922] 
2,654,907] 
l,961,058i 
2,259,755] 

I 
2,127,965] 

2,154,487] 
1,837,728] 
2,062,041] 
2,448,204] 

I 
2,789,720] 
2,684,634] 
2,553,290] 


2,362,604] 

2,719,9961 

2,641,851[ 

2,614,208] 

2,649,739] 

I 
3,000,17911 

2,655,312] 

3,189,510]1 

2,584,960] 

7,752,850] 

I 
3,090,802)1 
2,654,835] 
3,099,68111 
2,617,343| 
2,881,13r]l 

I 
3,347,6671 
3,353,33811 
3,067,99911 


823,739] 
045,965] 
931,503] 
999,2351 
980,848] 

I 
,165,378] 

884,059] 
,290,6421 
866,352] 
910,894] 

I 
,116,559] 
782,303] 
,253,290] 
855,269] 
,045,575] 

I 
,564,832] 
,305,559] 

,087,412] 


424,894 
596,400 
470,046 
565,510 
620,057 

661,777 
517.766 
680,831 
422,059 
498,285 

560,824 
450,589 
678,027 
362,589 
470,328 

705,481 
587,893 
515,236 


Table  XXIII— Monthly  Marketings  of  Corn  by  Farmers,  1917-1922 

Estimated  amount  sold  monthly  by  farmers  o£  the  United   States 
(millions  of  bushels) 


Year 


;-! 

0) 

03 

% 

a> 

o 

1  <J 

m 

O 

M 


26]     22|     24]     56 


35]     27]     30 
21 


1917-18    1  34 

1918-19    1  27 

1919-20    1  20 

1920-21    1  35 

1921-22    1  28j     42|     49]     39|     38]     71j     80 

Average  ] 


1031     88|     45]     36|     37|   640 


25]  40]  66]  57 

36|     45]     35]  46|  74|  93 

42-               -  --■  --■  -- 

31]     34|     30]  42|  68|  76 


30]     31] 


42] 
76| 


38| 
58] 


72|     43| 
65|     52| 


34|  33 

26]  33 

36  55 

271  44 

34|  40 


251  410 
47]  440 
61]   650 

43]  576 
43]   544 


Per  cent  of  year's  sales 

1917-18   

1918-19    

....]    5.3 
....]    6.7 

4.61    3.4]    3.8|    8.8|  12.2]  14.2]  16.1]  13.7] 

6.8i    8.4|    6.7]    7.3112.1115.0]    7.2]    7.5] 
5.6]    4.9]    5.6]    9.2115.0]  12.9]    9.5]    8.7| 
5.6!    6.9]    5.3]    7.1]  11.3]  14.3]  11.7]    8.9] 
7.3i    8.6i    6.7!    6.6]  12.4]  13.8]  12.4]    7.5] 
5.9|    6.4]    5.6|    7.8|  12.6]  14.0|  11.4|    9.2] 

7.1| 
8.2| 
5.9] 
5.6| 
4.7] 
6.3| 

5.6 
8.0 
7.6 
8.3 
7.6 
7.5 

5.8 

6.1 

10.6 

9.4 

7.5 
7.9 

100 
100 

1919-20    

...]    4  5] 

100 

1920-21    

1921-22    

....]    5.41 
.  ..]    4.9] 

100 
100 

Average  

....]    5.4| 

100 

CORN  STATISTICS 


229 


Table  XXIV- 


-Monthly  and  Yearly  Receipts  of  Corn  at  Primary  Markets, 
1913-14  to  1921-22 


I 
Month        11913-14  1914-15  1915-16  1916-17 


1917-18  1918-19  1919-20|l920-2lil921-22 


November  I  12, 

December  I  38, 

January    ]   27, 

February   |  23, 

I 

March  I  24, 

April   I     9. 

May  I   10, 

June  I  24, 

I 

July  i  12, 

August  I  20, 

September  |  15, 

October  |  10, 

Crop  year] 
total  ....1230, 


165  17, 

230  26, 

599]  30, 

8771  36, 


614  21 

414  27 
362|  32 
413i  21 


645    13,412 

,515  18,357 
,3981  24,551| 
,1291   39,1501 


16,113 
17,381 

12,405 
12,792 


13,232 

22,205 
21,239 
24,169 


9881  13, 

9481  13, 

7841  12, 

3221  14, 

I 

3181  14, 


10,3741 

18,2761 
39,991] 
26,026| 

1 


14,105 
42,639 
46,537 
59,558 


5541  17 

9181  13 

I 

367!  21 

032i   13,7671  15 

0311   17,191!  18 

899    15,2451  12 

I  I 

617|254,678!250 


1731  22,4661  49.5911  17,843|   22,9691  32,514]  33,930 

6G5!  15,992]  28.294]  9,178]   10,669]   11,192|  13,188 

768]  16,332]  19,010]  19,5601   10,894]   19,196]  21,965 

9191  23,0291  19,1631  12,275]   25,763]   34,463]  35,281 

]  !  ]  I            I            I 

275]  17,155]  22,292]  27,125 

427;  14,145]  16,622]  8,229 

359]  8,361]  22,746]  14,809 

149!  8,209]  23,740]  11,849 

I  !  i  I             I             I 
538]228,376|296,9281179,559]223,065J310,122]374,160 


20,102|   17,949]  22,475 

9,264]  30,061]  24,708 

19,852    35,578|  31,123 

18,707    34,502]  28,651 


230  CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 

Table  XXV— Yield  Per  Acre  of  Corn  Belt  States  and  United  States* 


Year 


o 

Q 


03 


1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 

1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 

1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 

1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 

1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 

1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 

1921 
1922 
1923 


32.0! 

33.3 

29.4| 

29.3 

23.81 

24.7 

26.3[ 

28.9 

32.6| 

32.8 

41.01 
32.5| 
37.0; 
36.0' 
37.01 
I 
26.1] 
38.01 
29.6; 
32.51 
37.81 


38.61 
42.81 
37.51 
39.11 
41.5, 

i 
31.5| 
38.0i 
36.01 
43.01 
43.4] 

I 
41.0 
39.0i 


35.0 
30.0 
36.0 
38.0 
38.0 

19.8 
37.9 
33.2 
31.5 
40.7 


I  42.61  39.6 

I  34.61  36.0 

!  38.5;  30.3 

i  39.51  40.0 

I  36.5 


39.31 

36.0 
40.3 
36.0 
33.0 

38.0' 

34.0 
36.0 
33.0 
37.0 
40.5 

36.0 
37.0 


33.51 

26.2 1 
25.71 
28.8| 
37.41 


36.11 
36.01 
31.61 
35.91 
39. li 


29. 5| 
38.01 
35.5 
36.01 
34.61 

! 

34.01 
35.51 


26.5 

27.0 
28.3 
18.4 
31.2 


40.5i  30.5 

32.51  26.0 

30.01  32.0 

36.0|  33.0 

37.01  33.0 

I 

21.4|  26.3 

38.71  22.8 

32. 2|  28.3 

36.5|  26.9 

39.8!  32.5 


33.6 
27.0 
29.0 
34.8 
32.7 


33.01  33.7 

40.01  34.5 

27.01  40.0 

29.01  35.0 

36.01  23.0 


33.5 
30.0 
40.0 
40.0 
37.5 

41.0 
33.0 


36.71 
28.31 
33.9 1 

15.0i 
35.1! 

I 
39.01 
29.01 
35.01 
31.0] 
38.0| 

I 
25.01 
32.01 
28.01 
32.61 
34.81 

I 
39.5| 
29.5 
31.71 
31.5i 
36.31 

I 
31.01 
43.01 
34.01 
38.01 
30.01 

I 
36.51 
37.01 
36.01 
41.61 
46.01 

I 
43.01 
45.01 


29.91 

27.71 
27.91 
22.01 
36.01 

I 
27.01 
26.01 
26.01 
26.0! 
28.01 

I 

10.1! 

39.0! 
32.41 
26.2! 
33.8! 
I 
32.3! 
31.0! 
27.0! 
26.41 
33.0! 

! 

26.01 
32.0! 

17.51 
22.0! 
29.5! 
I 
19.5! 
35.01 
20.01 
27.0! 
32.01 

! 

30.01 

28.51 


22.5| 
22.3! 

23.7| 

4.21 

ll.li 

i 
26.0! 
24.01 
28.01 
26.01 
27.01 

I 
21.0| 
18.9| 
27.21 
28.1! 
31.8! 

I 
33.51 
25.51 
29.71 
31.7| 
25.0! 

I 
22.01 
30.6! 
25.51 
26.0! 
29.0! 

I 
28. 5| 
28.01 
34.0! 
28.5! 
30.01 
■  I 
32.01 
28.5! 


35.2! 

28.21 

25.2| 

6.01 

16.1 

! 

37.5! 

30.0! 
21.0| 
28.01 
36.0! 
I 
14.11 
32.31 
26.0! 
32.81 
32.8! 

! 
34.1! 
24.01 
27.01 
24.81 
25.8! 

I 
21.0! 
24.0! 
15.01 
24.5! 
30.01 

! 

26.0! 
27.01 
17.71 
26.2! 
33.8! 
I 
28.0! 
25.01 


26.7! 
24.51 
21.3 
11.2 
24.31 
1 
28.01 
18.01 
16.01 
27.0! 
19.01 


29.91 
25.6 
20.91 
27.71 

I 
28.91 
22.11 
22.01 
19.91 
19.0 

I 
14.5! 
23.01 
3.21 
18.51 
31.01 

I 
10.01 
13.01 
7.11 
15.21 
26.51 


22.21 
19.31 


27.0 
23.1 
22.5 
19.4 
26.2 

28.2 
23.8 
24.8 
25.3 
25.3 

16.7 
26.8 
25.5 
26.8 
28.8 

30.3 
25.9 
26.2 
25.5 

27.7 

23.9 
29.2 
23.1 

25.8 
28.2 

24.4 
26.3 
24.0 
28.9 
31.5 

29.7 

28.2 


*Yield  figures  for  United  States  on  page  226  are  probably  more  accurate 
tlian  these  figures  but  are  not  so  comparable  with  these  state  figures. 


CORN  STATISTICS 


231 


Table  XXVI — Thousands  of  Acres  of  Corn  in  Corn  Belt  States  and 
United  States* 


Year 


03 

o 

ce 

a 

^ 

a 

•^ 

O 

5 

5      s 


cd 

o 

^ 

03 

O 

03 

xi 

03 

o3 

-c 

o 

<D 

03 

m 

^ 

i< 

1891 
1892 
1893 
1S94 

1895 

1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 

1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 

1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 

1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 

1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 

1921 
1922 
1923 


2,852 


.1  2,846 
! 

.|  3,017 

•  I  2,835 

•  !  2,779 
.1  2,751 
.  2,889 


.1  3,077 

.!  3,200 

-i  2,976 

•  I  3,065 

J  2,974 

I 

.|  3,325 

.|  3,400 

.|  3,550 

.1  3,875 

.|  3,960 

I 

.1  3,900 

.1  4,075 

.1  3,900 

-I  3,650 

.1  3,700 


I  3.600 

I  3,950 

I  3,700 

I  3,943 

I  3,965 


3,786 
3,823 


3,527|  6,310|      896    7,075 

I  I 

3,7021   6,82lj  1,152[   8,504 


I 

3,8131 
3,6601 
3,587J 
3,733| 
4,032| 

I 
4,432| 
4,520| 
4,295| 
4,5521 
4,5981' 


7,026| 
7,167| 
6,6651 
6,8651 

7,139| 

I 

9,254| 
9,623| 
8,201| 
9,428 
9,617 


1,129 
993 
954 
945 


8,249 
7,589 

7,285| 
7,812 
9631   8,048 

i  I 

1,3611  9,211 

l,484i  9,302' 

l,439i  8,186 

l,554i  9,296 

1,508|  8,768 


4,6431  9,617|  1,492|  9,450 
4,6901  9,521|  1,615|  9,160 
4,5491  9,450|  1,615|  9,068 
4,913|10,300|  1,6901  9,200 
4,S00|10,250|   2,040|   9,470 

I  I  I 

4,850|10,150|  2,2001  9,850' 
4,947110,6581  2,666110,047 
4,900jl0,450|  2,4001  9,950 
4,949|10,346|  2,600!10.248 
5,025!10,400|  2,800i   9,950 

I  I  ! 

5.137110,2001  2,600110,050 
5,651111,0001  3,000111,100 
5,138|  9.9001  2,750|10,434 
4,882!  8,579|  2,998|  9,959 
4,S34|   9,079|   3,288110,300 

4,7181  8,999|  3,820!10,330 
4,765|   8,819|  3,979110.123 

I     I     r 


I       ! 

5,505!      794| 


6,613!   1,119! 
I  I 

1,197 
9941 
1.003! 
1,1541 
1,200| 

I 
1,421| 
1,577| 
1,530! 
1,561! 
1,623! 

1.8751 
1,850! 
1,942| 
2,059| 
2,1001 

2,310| 
2,495! 
2,640! 
3,000| 
3,250! 

I 
2,950! 
3,3501 
3,182! 
3,288| 
3,650! 


6,547| 
6,612! 
5,951| 
6,266! 
6,453| 

6,578| 
6,775! 
6,260| 
5,783| 
6,0141 

I 
7,075| 
7,775| 
7,542! 
8,100| 
7,500! 

I 
7,4001 
7,622| 
7,375| 
7,200! 
6,500! 

I 
6,775J 
7,200! 
6,693| 
5,962! 
6,6461 

I 
6,096! 
6,1501 


I  I  76,205 

5,572    5,952|  70,627 

I  i  72,036 

I  I  62,582 

7,807|   8,426|  82,076 

7,962    8,848  81,027 

8,042    9,024  80,095 


7,559|  8,303 


8,013 
8,093 


8,001 
8,624 


7,741    7,885 
7,451    7,817 


I 
3.9261 
3,0611 


6,630 
7,956 
8,035 

7,325 

7,472 
7,621 
7,825 
7,425 

7,425 
7,609 
7,610 
7,100 
7,100 

7,400 
9,240 
6,954 
7,030 
7,560 

7.419 
7,296 


6,707 
6,440 
6,977 

6,750 
7,020 
7,100 
7,750 
8,950! 

8,700 
7,575 
7,320 
5,850 
5,550 

6,950 
9,156 
6,130 
4.188 
5,007 

4,601 
5,098 


77,722 
82,109 
83,321 

94,350 

94,044 
88.092 
92,232 
94,011 

96,738 

99,931 

101,788 

108,471 

104,035 

105,825 
107,083 
105.820 
103,435 
106,197 

105,954 
116.730 
104.461 
97.070 
101,699 

103,850 
102,428 


*Acreage  figures  for  United  States  on  page  226  are  probably  more  accurate 
than  these  figures  but  are  not  so  comparable  to  these  state  figures. 


232 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


Table  XXVII— Price  Per  Bushel  of  Corn  on  Farm,  December  1,  for  Corn 
Belt  States  and  United  States,  1891-1922- 


Year 


1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 

1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 

1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 


.411 


.401 

.43| 
.271 

I 
.211 
.25j 
.271 
.30| 
.341 

I 
.571 
.421 
.471 
.46| 
.431 


.40 
.36 
.37 
.23 

.19! 
.211 
.251 
.271 
.321 
I 
.55| 
.361 
.361 
.411 
.38i 


.37 
.37 
.31 
.39 
.22 

.181 
.21| 
.251 
.261 
.32] 
I 
.571 
.36] 
.36] 
.391 
.38  i 


.39] 

.37| 
.341 
.431 
.20| 

I 
.191 
.241 
.241 
.241 
.291 

1 
.451 
.40| 
.381 
.361 
.331 


.30 
.32 
.27 

.45 
.18 

.141 
.171 
.231 

.23 

.271 

.521 
.331 
.38| 
.33| 
.341 


.38 
.36 
.30 

.40 
.20 

.201 

.241 
.27| 
.301 

.321 

I 
.671 
.331 
.341 

.441 
.37! 


.351 
.331 
.251 
.461 
.23| 

I 
.181 
.211 
.23] 
.261 
.291 

1 
.451 
.41 
.351 
.361 
.311 


.26 

.28 
.27 
.501 

.181 

I 
.131 

.171 
.221 
.23| 
.311 

I 
.54! 
.301 
.281 
.331 
.321 


.341 
.311 
.311 
.431 

.191 

.18 
.22: 
.261 

.25! 
.321 

.63 
.34' 
.36! 
.41 
.33 


.406 
.394 
.365 
.457 
.253 

.215 
.263 
.287 
.303 
.357 


.403 
.425 
.441 
.413 


1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 

1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 


.!  .391 

•  I  .521 

.1  .631 

.1  .561 

.1  .461 


.581 
.45i 
.631 
.611 
.561 


.361 

.451 
.601 

.501 
.401 
I 
.54] 
.421 
.601 
.58! 
.511 


.361 

.441 
.571 
.521 
.381 


.341 

.501 
.551 
.491 

.451 


.32| 
.431 
.521 
.491 
.361 


.381 
.471 
.571 
.591 
.441 


.291 
.461 
.501 
.501 
.401 


551 

.531 

.53 

.601 

.531 

411 

.371 

.35 

.461 

.371 

631 

.531 

.60 

.741 

.561 

611 

.521 

.55 

.681 

.501 

54! 

.62! 

.51 

.57! 

.491 

.291 
.41! 
..511 
.501 
.361 
1 
.551 
.371 
.651 
.531 
.471 


.32 
.44' 
.55' 
.54' 
.45' 

.631 
.401 

.78' 
.63' 
.51' 


.399 
.516 
.606 
.579 
.480 

.618 
.487 
.691 
.644 
.575 


1916 


1918 
1919 
1920 

1921 
1922 
1923 


.90! 


.841 


.841 


1917    ;     1.36!     1.251     1.10! 


.:     1.30!     1.19!     1.201     1.111     1.22|     1.43 
.!     I.2I1     1.251     1.301     1.201     1.20!     1.38 


.681       .591       .59! 


.80!        .so!       .901       .77!  .781  .90'  .889 

1.10!     1-081     1.141     1.201  1.201  1.25i  1.279 

1.101  1.281  1.49:  1.365 

1.191  1.22!  1.40'  1.345 

.421  .411  .44!  .670 


.51 


.471       .641 

I  1 


.41! 
.66! 


.371 

.561 


.311 
.561 


.301 
.561 


.401 
.681 


.26! 
.501 


.271 
.581 


.423 
.657 


*Price  figures  for  United  States  on  page  226  are  probably  more  accurate 
than  these  figures  but  are  not  so  comparable  to  these  state  figures. 


CORN  STATISTICS 


233 


Table  XXVIII— Chicago  Corn  Prices 

Xo.  2  mixed  corn  has  been  used  throughout.  From  1S80  to  1916,  inclusive, 
the  average  of  the  high  and  low  for  the  month  as  been  taken.  Since  January, 
1917,  each  day  of  the  month  has  been  averaged.  Previous  to  1880,  averages 
were  taken  either  weekly  or  semi-monthly.  All  figures  are  derived  either  from 
the  Howard-Bartels  Red  Book  or  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  reports,  or  by 
averaging  prices  of  the  Howard  Bartels  Chicago  Daily  Trade  Bulletin.  The  three 
sources  generally  agree. 


I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I   10- 

|1860.|1861.|1862.[1863.tl864.|1865.1866.|l867.11868.1l869.|  yr. 

I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I         I  av. 


January  . 
February 
March  .... 
April  


.|     .481     .29|     .23| 


.41  .28 
.421  .27 
.46!     .30 


May  .... 
June  .... 
July    .... 

August 


.481 
.46] 
.431 
.401     -23 


.33      .27 

.231     .261 

.23j     .281 

.331 


September 
October  .... 
November 
December 


I 
.371 
.381 
.321 


■I 
•  I 
.|     .281     .24j 


.21|     .291 

.22|     .341 

.22|     .3lj 

.371 


.90 

.881 
.791 
.631 

I 
.54i 
.52| 
481   1.301     .561 
49|   1.26i     .67] 

I  I  I 

60|  1.301  .601 

79|  1.25|  .491 

88|  1.351  .521 

93|  .971  .431 


47 

.82 

51 

.89 

50 

.79 

47 

.92 

48 

1.04 

48 

1.15 

.70 


.481  .96 

.51|  .88 

.561  .80 

.561  .90 

I 

.541  1.00 


.88]     .58 
.851     .62 


.881     .81 
.971 

I 
.941     .841 


.551  .568 

.561  .561 

.541  .549 

.54|  .575 

I 
.604 
.596 
.633 
.671 


.661  1.06|  .87|  .67 
.871  .971  .76|  .73 
.761     .84|     .641 


.76 


.673 
.693 
.622 


Yearly  average |  .407 

.2541  .284]   .590|1.082|   .628|  .540|  .872]   .843|   .675|   .618 

CHICAGO  CORN  PRICES— Continued 

1           t          1           1          1          1           1           1           1           1           1   10- 
1870.|1871.  1872.  1873.|1874.|1875.  1876.  1877.  1878.  1879.    yr. 

1                             !          1                                      1          1  av. 

January  . 
February 
March  ... 
April  


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


September 
October  .... 
November 
December 


.72 

.47 

.41 

.31! 

.551 

.66! 

.431 

.70 

.52 

.40 

.31! 

.58! 

.641 

.411 

.72 

.541 

.38 

.321 

.60 

.661 

.441 

.82 

.51! 

.40 

.34! 

.63 

.711 

.471 

.8? 

.541 

.46 

.391 

.62 

.7l| 

.47 

.83 

.531 

.49 

.34! 

.601 

.671 

.45! 

.83 

.511 

.41 

.36! 

.621 

.70! 

.46! 

.74 

.451 
1 

.41 

.391 

1 

.67! 
1 

.69! 

I 

.45! 

.64 

.471 

.36 

.40! 

.771 

.59! 

.45| 

.60 

.471 

.33 

.38! 

.761 

.55| 

.441 

.61 

.46! 

.33 

.38! 

.771 

.521 

.441 

.50 

.411 

.31 

.501 

.78! 

.491 

.451 

.44!  .421 

.42|  .40 

.401  .42] 

.461  .40! 

I  I 

.531 


.471 
.470 
.481 
.509 


40! 

.461  .36! 

.48!  -38! 

.45!  -391 

I  I 

.441  .36! 

.431  .34! 

.451  .321 

.44|  .311 


.34!  .533 

.36!  -509 

.361  .511 

.331  .497 

! 

.35!  -483 

.411  .471 

.42|  .470 

.41!  .460 


Yearly  avera.ge !  .715|  .4921  .381|  .368|  .662!  .632|  .446!  .450]  .375!  -354!  .487 


234 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


CHICAGO  CORN  PRICES— Continued 


i    I    I     I    I 
11880. 11881. |1882. 11883. 11884. 

III! 


I         i  10- 

1885.|1886.|1887.1l888.|l889.1  yr. 

I  I         I         1         I  av. 


March 
April  ... 

May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


1     .39 

.371 

.62 

.601 

.541 

.371 

.371 

.36 

.40! 

.34! 

.445 

1     .37 

.37 

.58 

.571 

.541 

.371 

.37 

.35 

.471 

.351 

.434 

!     .35 

.40 

.64 

.56 

.521 

.39 

.37 

.371 

.491 

.34 

.443 

1     .34 

.421 

.74 

.53 

.501 

.45 

.37| 

.381 

.52! 

i 

.341 

.459 

1     .37 

.431 

.73 

.551 

.55] 

.471 

.361 

.38] 

.571 

.341 

.475 

1     .36 

.451 

.72 

.541 

.541 

.47! 

.35| 

.371 

.511 

.34! 

.46.5 

j     .36 

.481 

.78 

.50! 

.531 

.47! 

.40! 

.361 

.48! 

.361 

.472 

1     .38 

.571 

.77 

.521 

.53! 

.45, 

.421 

.401 

.451 

.35! 

.484 

September    |  .401  .67!  -67!  .50|     .69|  .43!  .39|  .42!  -431  .33^  .493 

October  !  .40!  .681  .65|  .481     .50]  .42|  .351  .42|  .43|  .321  .465 

November   |  .421  .61!  .68|  .52|     .40!  -43!  .35!  .44|  .39]  .46|  .470 

December  ...|  .391  .61|  .55|  .59!     .37!  -391  -371  .49|  .35|  .32|  .443 

Yearly  average |  .378!  .505|  .678!  .539!  -518!  .426|  .373|  .395!  .465|  .3491  .463 


CHICAGO  CORN  PRICES— Continued 


I        I        !        I        I        I        I        I 

1890. |1891.!1S92.|1893. 11894. 11895. 11896. 11897. 

I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I' 


I        !  10- 

1898.!l899.i  yr. 

I  I  av. 


January 
February 
March    ... 
April  


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


September   

October  

November   

December  

Yearly  average. 


.29! 
.281 
.29 
.31 

.341 

.1  .34! 

.1  .401 

•I  .481 

I  I 

•I  .481 

.1  .511 

.!  .51! 

.1  .50i 


.491     .381     .421 


.521 
.62| 


.621 
.58i 
.621 


.581 
.551 
.64! 


.401     .42! 
.39!     .41! 


'1!     .411     .411 
I 


.351 
.35! 
.36! 
.38! 


.701  .421     .38! 

.oil  .401     .40| 

.50!  .391 

.52i  .38! 

I  I 

.461  .401 

.421  .391 

.42!  .371 


.44! 
.531 
I 
.53! 
.51! 
.501 


.491     .41!     .35!     .46! 


.431 
.411 

.441 

.«, 

.52! 
.50] 
.45! 
.401 
i 
.34! 
.301 
.281 
.261 


.27!  .23! 

.28]  .231 

.291  .241 

.301  .241 

I  I 

.29!  .241 

.271  .241 

.26!  -261 

.231  .30! 

I  •     I 

.211  .301 

.24|  .27! 

.241  .27! 

.23!  .261 


.271  .37!  .350 

.29!  -351  .353 

.291  .35!  .368 

.321  .351  .390 

I  I 

.351  .33  .419 

.321  .34!  .390 

.341  .33!  .399 

.321  .32|  .411 

I  I 

.301  .33  .393 

.31!  .32  .382 

.331  .32  .388 

.36!  .31  .363 


.1  .394!   .5881   .4601   .3971   .4331   .4001   .2591   .257!   .317!  -3351   .384 


CHICAGO  CORN  PRICES—Continued 


January  . 
February 
March  .... 
April  


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


!1900.!1901.|1902.!1903.|1904.il905.|1906.|l907.| 

I       (       !       i       I       I       I       I       I 


September    

October  

November   

December  

Yearly  average. 


1  I  10- 

1908.|1909.|  yr. 

I  I  av. 


.31 

.371 

.611 

.46 

.4b 

.43 

.42 

.42 

.59 

.60 

.466 

33 

.391 

.59! 

.44 

.50 

.44 

.41 

.44 

.58 

.63 

.475 

.36 

.421 

.591 

.441 

.53 

.471 

.421 

.44 

.621 

.661 

.495 

.40 

.45! 

.611 

1 

.44! 

.51 

.481 

.461 
1 

.48 

.671 
1 

.701 
1 

.520 

.38 

.51! 

.62! 

.451 

.49 

.561 

.«! 

.53 

.751 

.74! 

.552 

.40 

.431 

.661 

.50! 

.49! 

.541 

.521 

.53 

.711 

.74 

.552 

.42 

.51! 

.72! 

..51! 

.49! 

.561 

.491 

.54 

.741 

.71 

.569 

39 

.57! 
1 

.571 
1 

.521 

.541 
1 

.551 

1 

.51! 
1 

.58 

.791 

1 

.681 

1 

.570 

.41 

.571 

.60 

.491 

.53! 

.531 

.501 

.62 

.80! 

.66: 

.571 

.39 

.561 

.581 

.451 

.54! 

.52 

.49] 

.61 

.73! 

.611 

.548 

.42 

.611 

.551 

.431 

.54! 

.49 

.461 

.58 

.64! 

.631 

.535 

.38 

.651 

.511 

.42; 

.461 

.46! 

.46] 

.60 

.601 

.64| 

.518 

583 

.504! 

.6011 

.4631 

.5061 

.5031 

.4691 

.531 

.6851 

.667! 

.531 

CORN  (STATISTICS 


235 


CHICAGO  CORN  PRICES— Continued 


I  I  I  I  I  I  I  10- 

|1910.il911.|1912.|1913.|1.914.|l915.|1916.il917.  1918.  1919.1  yr. 

I  I  !  I  I  I  I  f         I  I  lav. 


January 
February 
March    ... 
April  


May  ... 
June  ... 
July  .... 
August 


September 

October  

November 
December  . 
Yearly 


I  .65 

I  .65 

I  .63 

!  .59 

I 

I  .60 

I  .59 

I  .63 

I  .63 
I 

i  .551 

I  .501 

I  -501 

I  .48 


.471 
.501 

I 
.54! 
.561 
.631 

.64j 

I  I 

.67!  .741 
.64 
.54 
.51 


.471     .671  .49 

.471     .651  .50 

.70;  .52 

.78|  .56 

I 

.791  .581 

.741  .61 

.721  .64| 
.78' 


.76|  .99 

.76!  1.01 

.74|  1.12 

.771  1.45 


1.81 
1.75 
1.72 
1.66 


731     .80 


.72| 
.73! 
.70! 


.75! 
.70! 
.731 
.701 


.78! 
.741 
.70 
.65 


! 

77!     .74 

1.64 

1.62 

74!     .74 

1.71 

1.59 

79|     .81 

2.00 

1.65 

79|     .85 

1.97 

1.71 

72!     .87 

2.10 

1.59 

63!   1.00 

1.99 

1.38 

651   1.02!   2.10 

1.37 

72|     .92 

1.73 

1.45 

1.40!  -860 
1.3l|  .845 
1.51|  .881 
1.63|  .937 

I 
1.77!   .975 
1.92|  .991 
2.1911.078 
1.95!1.085 

I 
1.53|1.030 
1.39|  .969 
1.51!   .985 
1.47|  .933 


average !  .584|  .5921   .689!   .626|   .699!   -7301  .832!1.650!1.608|1.632|  .964 

CHICAGO  CORN  PRICES— Continued 


Septembe 
Octobe 

November   I 

December 

Yearly   average |  1.411  .582|  .626 


238 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


Table  XXIX — Chicago  Heavy  Hog  Prices 

From  1S96  to  date,  heavy  hog  prices,  as  compiled  by  Chas.  A.  S.  McCracken 
for  the  Chicago  Drovers'  Journal  Year-Book,  have  been  used.  From  ISSl  to 
1895,  inclusive,  the  average  of  the  range  of  Chicago  hog  prices,  as  compiled  by 
the  Cincinnati  Price  Current,  has  ])een  used.  Properly  speaking,  these  prices 
refer  more  nearly  to  average  hogs  than  to  heavy  hogs.  Previous  to  1881,  prices 
have  been  compiled  from  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  reports,  the  grade  known 
as  heavy  packers  and  shippers  being  used  so  far  as  possible. 


I  I  i 

I1860.|1861.|1862. 

I  I  I 


I      I      I      ! 

1863.fl864.|1865.  1866.1 

I  I  I  I 


I  I 

1867.1868.11869. 

I  I 


10- 

yr. 
av. 
^6^ 
6.85 
6.92 
6.67 

6.08 
6.08 
6.53 


6.98 
6.73 
6.56 
6.56 
6.61 


January  . 
February 

March 

April    


.i   4.851   5.051  2. 

.|   5.251   5.001  2. 

.751  3. 

.551  2. 


5.051 
4.90( 


35)  3, 

501  4. 

OOi  4, 

90  4, 


May  

June  

July  

August  

September 

October  

November 
December  . 
Yearly 


.|  4.80!  3. 

.1  4.801  3. 

.|  5.201  2, 

.|  5.35i  2. 

I  I 

.1  5.30i  2, 

.i  5.301  2, 

-I  5.30'  2. 

.1  4.601  2. 


85|  2. 

10|  2. 

701  2. 

75|  2. 

80]  2. 

SOI  2. 

65|  3. 

45!  3. 


60|   5. 

05| 

15| 

25! 

I 


751  6 

15!  7, 

25!  8 

80!  8 

I 

20!  9 

10!  8 

50!  9 
05!10 


11, 

35111. 
55!11, 
95!   9, 

I 
45!  7, 
25!  7. 
551   9, 
90|10. 

I 
50|11, 
65112. 
75111, 
05|  9, 


15 

9.30 

6.10 

301  9.45 

6.50 

151  9.40 

6.60 

50 

8.55 

6.80 

50 

8.701  6.25 

80 

8.95 

5.90 

9.401 
9.851 
I 
9.30! 
8.651 
6.951 
5.851 


6.051   8.35 
6.351  9.15 


6.60|10.15i 
7.7510.35' 
8.65:  9.85 
8.551  9.751 

I  I 

8.251  8.751 
7.651  8.75i 
8.95' 
9.201 


6.151  8.701  9.251 

5.85!  7.501  9.301 

5.75|  7.001  9.101 

6.601  8.351  9.801 


average 1  5.06!  3.54|  2.831  4.16|  7.91110.23!  8.69)  6.241  8.041  9.44i 


CHICAGO  HEAVY  HOG  PRICES— Continued 


I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 

|1870.|1871.|1872.11873.|1874.|1875.|1876.|l877.|1878.  1879.1 
I  I  I  I  .1  I  I  I  I  I  I 


January    I  9.05! 

February  I  9.00| 

March  |  8.55| 

April    I  8.801 

May  I  8.75i 

June  I  8.60| 

July    1  9.001 

August   1  9.50| 

I  I 

September   |  9.30! 

October    1  7.90) 

November   1  6.851 

December    I  6.151 

Yearly    average....!  8.46| 


6.601 

7.301 

6.751 
5.601 

4.551 
3.80| 
4.40| 
4.401 

4.45i 
4.301' 
4.00| 
4.15; 
5.03r 


4.35! 

4.451 
4.451 
4.251 

I 
4.05! 
3.90| 
4.051 
4.651 

I 
4.90| 
4.601 
4.25| 
3.751 
X311 


3.85| 
4.201 
4.951 

5.401 

4.90! 
4.45| 
4.551 
4.601 
I 
4.50! 
4.301 
3.851 
4.701 
4.53r 


5.20|  6.60| 

5.351  6.95! 

5.301  7-501 

5.50!  8.25] 
I  1 

5.50|  7.901 

5.55!  7.001 

6.05!  7.051 

6.901  7.751 

I         ! 

7.25|  8.00| 

6.00!  7.95! 

6.501  7.30! 

6.851  6.95| 

XOO!  7.T4r 


7.151 
7.951 
8.55! 
8.051 

7.15! 
6.051 
7.001 
6.15] 
I 
6.001 
5.901 
5.751 
5.95| 


6.81| 


4.051  2.90! 
3.901  3.70' 
3.701  3.951 
3.55!  3.701 

[  I 

3.301  3.501 

3.501  3.751 

4.101  3.60! 

5.051  4.251  3.40] 

I  I  I 

5.301  3.95|  3.451 
5.351  3.45!  3.601 
4.70!  2.951  3.851 
4.25|  2.701  4.55' 
X29T  3.621   3.67: 


6.45| 
6.151 

5.501 
5.551 
I 
5.301 
4.85! 
4.95! 


10- 
yr. 
av. 

5.90 
5.92 

5.87 

5.49 
5.15 
5.48 
5.67 

5.71 
5.34 
5.00 
5.00 
5.51 


CORN  STATISTICS 


237 


CHICAGO  HEAVY  HOG  PRICES— Continued 


I         I         I         I         1  10- 
1885.|1886.1887.1888.|l889.    yr. 

I         I         I         I         I  av. 


January 
February 
March 
April  , 


4.451  5.40|  5.00|  5.19 

5.201  5.35|  4.70|  5.47 

5.301  5.451  4.751  5.51 

-  ""  5.50|  4.75|  5.48 

I  I 

4.50|  5.36 
4.35 
4.40 
4.15 


Septem 
October 
November 

December  ]  4.75 

Yearly   average 


20!  4.20 

6.051  4.25 

5.951  3.85]  4.88 

5.201  3.60!  4.84 


5.24 
5.50 
5.52 


5.47 
5.12 


4.64|  6.131   7.381   6.07!   5.441   4.21!  4.141   4.89|   5.71|  4. 


CHICAGO  HEAVY  HOG  PRICES— Continued 


!1890.! 

I  I 


I  I 


1891. 


1892.!1 
( 


893.(1894. 

I  I 


1895.|1896.!1897.  1898.  1899.1 

I  I  I  I  I 


10- 

yr. 

av. 
T32 
4.45 
4.52 
4.59 

4.54 
4.38 
4.53 
4.48 

4.55 
4.43 
4.08 
4.08 
4.41 


January  . 
February 
March  .... 
April  


3.70 

3.95 

4.10 

4.25 

May  ... 
June  ... 
July  ..., 
August 


September    

October  

November   

December  

Yearly  average. 


.1  4.051 

.!  3.75! 

.!  3.751 

.|  3.80! 

I  i 

.1  4.351 

.|  4.051 

.|  3.80| 

■i  3.401 


3.55 
3.50| 
4.201 
4.80i 

4.65i 
4.50! 
5.10i 
5.10i 

4.90| 
4.501 
3.85! 
3.651 


4.25 
4.60 
4.55 
4.50 

i 
4.551 
5.00i 
5.651 
5.40l 

I 
5.151 
5.351 
5.50| 
6.151 


7.45|  5.30 

7.95!  5.10 

7.55!  4.75 

7.051  5.00 

I        ! 

7.40!  4.90 

6.65i  4.75 

5.60!  5.30 

5.05!  5.351 

I  I 

6.001  5.851 

6.40!  5.15i 

5.70!  4.35! 

5.65!  4.35! 


4.25  3.95|  3.35 

4.15  4.10|  3.35 

4.60  3.90|  3.85 

4.90  3.551  4.05 


3.651  3.75 

4.00  3.80 

3.90  3.80 

3.90  3.85 


4.55|  3.30!  3.75!  4.35!  3.90 

4.651  3.151  3.401  4.10|  3.80 

5.10!  3.051  3.50|  3.95!  4.25 

4.651  3.05  3.90  3.90|  4.55 

4.10!  2.90|  4.001  3.851  4.40J 

3.851  3.25  3.75!  3.701  4.301 

3.55!  3.25|  3.40!  3.45|  3.901 

3.50!  3.251  3.35!  3.40!  4.05! 


.|   3.92!   4.361   5.061   6.54|   5.02|  4.33!   3.39|  3.641   3.85|   4.031 


CHICAGO  HEAVY  HOG  PRICES— Continued 


11900. 11901. 11902. 11903. 11904. 1 

!'        I        I        !        I        I 


!        I        I        I        I 

1905. 11906. !1907. 11908. 11909.1 

I  1  f  I  I 


10- 
yr. 
av. 
"5^ 
5.78 
6.04 
6.27 

6.06 
6.13 
6.23 
6.11 

6.33 
6.01 
5.62 
5.63 
5.97 


January   !  4.55! 

February   ...' !  4.90! 

March    !  5.00| 

April  I  5.55 

I  I 

May    i  5.30| 

June  1  5.201 

July    I  5.251 

August   I  5.20! 

I  I 

September    |  5.25! 

October  |  4.80! 

November   |  4.80! 

December  j  4.75| 

Yearly  average |  5.05| 


5.25| 
5.40! 
5.901 
5.85i 

i 
5.801 
6.00! 
5.90! 
5.951 

I 
6.65! 
6.10! 

5.701 
6.201 


6.40|  6 

6.301  7 

6.501  7 

7.101  7 

I 

7.00!  6 

7.501  6 


7.801 
7.251 

I 
7.55! 
7.00! 
6.35! 
6.35! 


.60!  4.95! 

.00!  5.251 

.451  5.501 

.30|  5.15| 

I  I 

.60!  4.751 
.051  5.05! 
45  5.35! 
.301  5.251 

!  I 

751  5.70! 

401  5.351 

60!  4.80! 

50  4.501 


4.701  5.40! 

4.90!  6.00! 

5.201  6.30! 

5.45|  6.50| 

i  I 

5.401  6.45! 

5.30|  6.55! 

5.60|  6.60| 

5.901  6.151 

I  I 

5.401  6.151 

5.10!  6.401 

4.80]  6.20| 

4.90|  6.25! 


6.60!  4.451  6.201 

7.05!  4.501   6.45! 

6.65!  5.051   6.S0I 

6.601  5.851  7.30! 

I         I'        ! 

6.35!  5.50!  7.40| 

6.05|  5.801  7.S01 

5.90!  6.551 

5.90!  6.60| 

I  I 

5.80!  6.901 

6.05!  6.051 

4.90|  5.90|   8.10 

4.651  5.75!   8.45 


7.90i 
7.60| 

I 
8.10 

7.85 


5.89!  6.931  6.00|   5.14|  5.23|  6.25|  6.04|  5.74|  7.50! 


238 


CORN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 


CHICAGO  HEAVY  HOG  PRICES— Continued 


t  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  10- 

11910.  1911.jl912.|l913.1914.|l915.1916.|l917.|l918.|l919.|  yr. 

i  I         i  I  I         I         I         I  I         1  I  av. 


January 
February 
March    ... 
April  


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


September 

October  

November 
December  . 


8.70 

9.20 

110.65 

iio.oo 

7.85 
7.25 
6.70 
6.15 

6.30 
6.25 
7.10 

7.85 

7.40 
8.05 
8.75 
8.80 

8.35 

8.55 
8.60 
8.50 

6.80 
6.70 
6.65 
7.05 

7.30|11.00 

8.30|12.50 
9.60J14.90 
9.70!l5.80 

16.40117.601  9.77 
16.70ll7.65|10.12 
17.00J19.00|10.91 
17.40  20.30  11.16 

1  9.50 
1  9.35 
1   8.60 
i   8.25 

5.85 
6.15 
6.65 
7.15 

7.70 
7.50 
7.60 
8.05 

8.40 
8.50 
8.95 
8.10 

8.30 
8.15 
8.60 

8.75 

7.40    9.85!16.00il7.45120.60;ll.ll 
7.35    9.75il5.65|16.50i20.30|10.92 
6.951  9.75  15.20|17.70  21.65|11.17 
6.70110.20  17.00|18.90  19.75111.29 

1  8.70    6.751   8.301   8.10 
1   8.45    6.501   8.65J   8.15 
1  7.751   6.35|  7.751  7.80 
1  7.651   6.25|   7.451  7.70 

8.601   7.20jl0.55|18.30119.55|17.25111.33 
7.55|  7.751   9.85ll7.25ll7.55il4.25|10.60 
7.50|  6.851  9.85jl7.60|17.70|14.10!10.31 
7.10|   6.60110.00;16.95jl7.55|13.50!10.08 

Yearly  average I  8.89|  6.64|  7.54|  8.23]  8.22|  7.00|  9.56il5.6Sil7.53|18.00|10.73 


CHICAGO  HEAVY  HOG  PRICES— Continued 


I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 

|1920.|1921.|1922.ll923.|i924.|1925.|1926.|1927.|1928.11929. 

I       !       i       I 


I       1 


I       I 


January    !H.90|  9.25 

February   |14.30l  9.10 

March    |14.651  9.60 

April   114.401  8.25 


May    14 

June  14 

July    114 

August    |14 

I 

September   |]5 

October  J13 

November   ]12 

December  |  9 

Yearly   average 113 


.001 

.351 
.501 

451 

i 
.551 
.701 
.00] 

.401 

85T 


7.80| 

9.601 

10.201 

10.151 


I  I 


I  I 


.20|10 
.10110 

.501  9 
.151   8 


.401  8 

.401  8 

.501  7 

.751  8 


7. 
7. 
7. 

6^ 

8.351   9.06! 


.001 


I  I 


I  I 


Table  XXX — Chicago  Corn-Hog  Ratios  by  Decades 

^       ^1         I         I         i         I     ^ 

|l870-|l8S0-|1890-!l900-|1910- 

I1879.I1S89. 11899. 11909. 11919. 

January    .7. j  11.91  11.71  12.31  11-8|  11-4 

February    |  12.61  12.61  12.6!  12.21  12.0| 

March  I  12.3!  12.4!  12.3'  12.2|  12.4 

April   !   11.51   11.9i  11.8!  12.11  11.9 

'!         I         I  I  I         I 

May    !  10.3!  11-3!  10.8|  11.0|  11.4| 

June  I  lO.lj  11.3!  11-2!  H-lj  H.O 

Julv    !   10.7|   11.7'  11.4!  11.0!  10.41 

August    I   11.41   11.4!  10.9!  10.7!  10.3| 

I         I         !  I  I         I 

September    j  11.81  11.1|  11.61  11.1!  11.1| 

October  |  11.3!  H.O!  11.6!  11.0!  H-O 

November   |  10.61  10.21  10.5!  10.51  10.61 

December  j  10.9i  10.9|  11.21  10.9|  10.5| 


CORN  STATISTICS 


239 


Table  XXXI— Iowa  Corn  Prices 

(Prices  on  farms  or  nearest  shipping  point,  first  of  each  month) 


11910.  1911.11912.  1913.  1914.11915.1 

I I  I  I  I  I  I 


1916.|1917.1918.|l919. 

I  I  1  I 


10- 

yr. 
av. 
T684 
.702 
.714 
.766 

.830 
.857 
.881 
.971 

.949 
.884 
.766 
.720 

Tsio 


January  , 
February 
March  ... 
April  


.511 
.54 
.52 
.51 


May  ... 
June  ... 
July  ... 
August 


.481 
.501 


.41j 
.441 


.531     .49| 
.55|     .56 


September   

October  

November   

December  

Yearly   average. 


.49| 
.39| 


.561 

.571 
.571 
.531 


.55 
.56 
.61 

.69 
.70 
.67 
.651 


.611 

.501 
.351 


.361 
.38| 
.39| 

.41 


.58 


.45 
.50 
.52 
.54 

.66 

.66| 
.601 
.60 


.80 


1.11 


.661 


1.211  1.361 

1.2l|  1.251 

1.341  1.22] 

1.361  1.40| 

I  I 

1.40|  1.54| 

1.35|  1.63| 

1.37|  1.66| 

1.471  1.841 

I  I 

1.50|  1.69 

1.38|  1.32| 

1.151  1.111 

1.22|  1.201 
I   .495!   -4671   .590]   .506|   .612|   .646]   .693|1.328|1^30[lT435| 


.571 
.66| 


.681 
.681 
.69| 

.711 


.721 
.69| 
.611 

.551 


I  I 


.71j 
.661 

.591 

.511 


1.40 
1.46 
.69|  1.56 
.731  2.021 

I  I 

.77|  1.651 

.761  1.701 

.78|  1.36| 

.80|  1.08| 


IOWA  CORN  PRICES— Continued 
(Prices  on  farms  or  nearest  shipping  point,  first  of  each  month.) 


1                     1           1           I           1                                1           1           1   10- 
|1920.  1921.!1922.!1923.|1924.J1925.  1926.  1927.  1928.11929. |  yr. 

!          1          1          1          !          1          1          1          1          1          1  av. 

January    1.23|     .51]     .32|     .59] 

1          1          1          1          1 

February                            1  29|      44|      35|      58| 

1          1                              1 

March    |  1.2S|     .48|     .47|     .62| 

1          1          1 

1          1          1          1 

April  1   1  41|      43       45|      62| 

1        1        1        1        ! 

May    1   1.531     .40|     .48|     .69| 

June 1  1  691      44       49|      71| 

1          1          1          1          1 
1          1          1          1          1 

1          1          1          1          1 
III' 

July                                   1  1 66|      45       50|      73| 

August   1   1.36|     .45]     .51] 

1           1           1           1 
September                       1  1  35!      40|      49|          ' 

October  I     .95      .36|     .50|          | 

!        I        1 

1 

November |      64       27       53|          | 

December                         |      47|      30       56|          | 

Yearly   average 11.238!  -412!  .471!          1          1          1          1          1          1          1 

240 


COKN  AND  CORX-GROWIXG 


Table  XXXII— Illinois  Corn  Prices 

(Pries  on  farms  or  nearest  shipping  point,  first  of  each  month.) 

I         I  I         ^1  I  1         I  I  I         I         I  10-^ 

Il910.!1911.il912.ll913.|l914.|l915.ll916.|1917.|l918.!l919.|  yr. 

I         I         I  f         I         I         f         i         1         I         I  av. 


January 
February 
March    ... 
April  


.391 
.401 


.59      .401 
.57      .40 


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


I  I 

.54|     .431     .74 


September 

October  

November 
December  . 
Yearly 


.541 
.571 
.58 

.57 
.51 
.43 
.38 


.41 
.45 
.46 

.471     .64| 


.64|     .641 
.601     .70 


.60] 


.511 

.551 
.58 


.63 


.711     .611     .72|     .76 

I  I  I 


.721     .73 
.661     .71 


.781 
.741 


.73 


.601     .50!     -641     .67!     5.7 
.55|     .41|     .63!     -611     -54 


.62 

.84 

.65 

.92 

.65 

.98 

.65 

1.09 

.69 

1.47 

.69 

1.54 

.70 

1.60 

.76 

2.06 

.80 

1.72 

.80 

1.80 

.841  1.42 

.84 

1.10 

1.16!  !• 

1.25!  !■ 

1.36|  1, 

1.30!  !• 

1.33  1, 


1.25| 
1.32| 
1.391 

I 
1.47! 
1.39! 
1.18! 
1.20! 


34|  .714 

20|  .735 

23!  -755 

42|  .788 

I 

56!  .864 

67|  .889 

74|  .915 
89|1.016 


.996 
.930 
.809 
.756 


average |   .535|   .495!   -636!   .563!   .666|  .681|   .724!1.378il.300|1.487|   .84'i 


ILLINOIS  CORN  PRICES— Continued 
(Prices  on  farms  or  nearest  shipping  point,  first  of  each  month..) 


|l920.ll921.ll922.|l923.|1924.il925.|l926.|1927 

f       !'        I        I        I        I        I        I 


1928 


.11929 

I 


I   10- 

I  yr. 
I  av. 


January 
February 
March    ... 
April  


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


September   

October  

November   

December  

Yearly  average. 


1.371 
1.441 
1.42! 

1.54! 
I' 
1.091 
.184! 
.1831 
1.48! 

I 
1.491 
1.09| 

.77! 
.591 


.61 
.54 

.55i     .50 


.531 
I 
.51! 
.56! 
.531  .55! 
.551     .561 


.39|     .64| 

.411  .64! 
.671 
.68! 


.53!     •'76| 
.54!     .761 


! 

.481  .551 

.441  .56! 

.35!  .56i 

.38!  .60! 


I 

I  I 


.11.379!   .5001   .5201 


I  I  I  I 


CORN  STATISTICS 


241 


Table   XXXIII — Corn    (American   Mixed) — Average   Spot  Prices   Per 
Bushel  of  56  Pounds  at  Liverpool* 


11912, 


I 
1913.11914.1915, 


1916.1917. 


1918.11919, 


1920.|1921.  1922 


January  . 
February 
March  ..  . 
April  


.1  .92 

J  .95 

.!  .94 

.1  .95 


May  .... 
June  .... 
July  .... 
August 


September    ] 

October  I 

November   | 

December  I 


.951 
.931 


.99| 
.911 


.911  1.04  1.40| 

.9l|  1.11  1.47| 

.91  1.101  1.43 

.91  1.091  1.431 


.91 

.92 

.93 

1.13 


.951  1.11 

.S9|  1.04 

.901  1.00 

.911  .98 


1.131  1.47 

l.OSi  1.28 

1.10|  1.37 

1.18|  1.44 

I 

1.16|  1.41 

1.16|  1.48 

t    I  1.71 

1.23|  1.83 


1.95 
2.00 
2.05 

1.98i 

I 
2.03] 

2.05| 
2.05i 
2.05| 

I 
2.05| 
2.05| 
2.05| 
2.05| 


16  2.11 
161  2.11 
16|   1.65 


2.16 


1.63 

I 
1.63| 
1.61| 
1.55| 

t    I 

I 
t  I 
t  I 
t  I 
t    I 


t    I 
1.93| 

2.14| 
2.16J 

I 
2.04 
2.06| 

t    i 
t 


1.49 
1.15 
1.13 
1.01 


.95|  .84 
.97|  .84 
.981  .98 
.92 


.921 


t 
1.63 
1.58 
1.38 


I 

.851     .90 
.71 
.78 
.85 


1.00 
1.00 
1.00 


*Broomhairs  Corn  Trade  News. 
tXo  quotations. 

Table  XXXIV— Corn— Spot  Prices  Per  Bushel  of  56  Pounds  at  Buenos 

Aires* 


|1912.|1913.!l914.|1915.|l916. 

I  II  I  I 


1917. 


1918.11919. 


1920. 


1921. 1922 


January   j  t    I  .54|  .55|  .54|  .56]  1.07 

February   ;  t    \  .54|  .56|  .61]  .60|  1.07 

March    I  t    |  .54|  .56|  .56|  .56|  .99 

April    I  .5S|  .561  .541  .571  .51  1.03 

May    1  .5.31  .55|  .59]  .54|  .45  1.27] 

June  1  .521  .55|  .55]  .50|  .43  1.46| 

July    1  ,5li  .55j  .571  .51|  .45  1.43] 


August    , I     .521     .55|t  .561     .49|     .51    1.27]     .68]   1.07|     .90| 


1.03 


1.13 
1.10 


September    .. 

October  

November   ... 

December  .... 

Average 


:■  .50!  -621  .551  .51|  .55|  .87| 

.|  .511  .591  .49|  .511  .701  .851 

.|  .52|  .581  .531  .541  1.03|  .95j 

.|  .531  .581  .541  .52|  .93|  .88| 


I 

.65] 
.631 
.631 
.631 


.911 

.791 
.741 
.711 


I 

.921 
.831 
.771 
.821 


.52]     .56|     .551     .531     .61|   1.10| 


.701 


.63 
.73 

.79 

.77 


.61]  .75 

.63|  .71 

.65|  .78 

.661  .78 

I 

.651  .76 

.58|  .74 

.611  .70 

.631  .74 


.71      .74 


^International  Yearbook  of  Agricultural  Statistics,  1912-1921.    Review  of  the 
River  Plata,  1.922.    Average  of  weekly  quotations. 
tNo  quotations. 
SInterpolation,  no  quotation. 


("ORX  AND  (H)KX-GKOWIXG 


Table  XXXV— Corn- 


-Spot  Prices  Per  Bushel  of  56  Pounds  of  Yellow 
La  Plata  at  LiverpooP'- 


I        t 

11932.11913, 


1914.|1915.|1916. 

I  I 


1917, 


1918. 


1919, 


1920.11921.11922. 


January- 
February 
March    ... 
April  


1  t 

::;::=!  I 

1  t 

May    i  .97 

June  I  .87 

July    I  .71 

August    !  .75 


September   .. 

October  

November    ... 

December  .... 

Average 


.72] 
.681 
.67| 


.71 
.75 
.76 
.74 

.72i 
.691 
.671 
.671 
I 
.701 
.66 
.631 
.671 


.65 
.66 
.68 
.681 

I 
.741 
.761 
.78| 
.971 

I 
.931 

.831 
.781 
.831 


1.401tl.89|   2.23 


1.061  1-44 
1.02|  1.42 
1.061   1.43 


1.111  1.47 
.971  1.33 
.921 


1.92|  2.23 
2.00|  2.23 
2.161  2.23 


2.04 
2.04 
1.75 
1.74 


1.74 
1.72 
1.65 
1.65 


.85] 

.941 

1.061 

1.191 


t    i  2.23 

2.171  2.23 

1.45i  2.171  2.42 

1.541  2.171  2.61 

I  I 

1.39|  2.171  2.61 

1.481  2.17|  2.61 

1.69|   2.171  2.611   1-65| 

1.811   2.171  2.61|   1.52| 


l.( 

1.681 


§1.49| 

111.771 

111.961 

1.97| 

I 
1.811 
1.671 
1.53 
1.43| 
I  I 


1.601 
1.49i 
1.15| 
1.25! 


1.281  -92 

1.22]  1.08 

1.30]  1.08 

1.28;  1.03 

I 

1.181  1.06 

1.091  1.01 

1.051  1-10 

.93!  1.10 

I 

.831  1.09 

.72'  1.08 

.781  -96 

.881  1.00 


.|     .771     .701     .771   1.001  1.491   2.111   2.40|   1.74|  1.591   1.04|   1.04 


*Statement  prepared  by  Foreign  Section,  Division  of  Statistical  and  Histor- 
ical Research,  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics. 
tNot  quoted. 

JTrading  in  maize  controlled  January  5,  1917. 
§Afloat  price. 
i  Nominal. 


1922  Cost  of  Producing  Corn 

(Averages  by  Geographical  Divisions) 


.^ 

.c 

p 

o 

S- 
^  £ 

o 
^13 

"cS 

■^   fl 

^1 

"S  ^ 

i.u 

fsfl 

lU  c 

^6 

^< 

w< 

HO 

MO 

^   I   B 


Number  of  reports !      2561 

.A.cres  in  the  crop,  per  farm i       S.ej 

Yield  per  acre,  bushels !        52| 

Cost  per  acre — •  ]  | 

Prepare   and    plant !■$  8.401$ 

Cultivate    |     4.62| 

Harvest  I     7.17| 

Market   (     2.88| 

Miscellaneous  labor  I       .88| 

Fertilizer  and  manure |  15.89] 

Seed  I       .79| 

Land  rent  I     6.30| 

Miscellaneous  costs  |     2.84| 

Total  !   49.771 

Credit  for  by-products  per  acre I     6.68] 

Net  cost  per  acre |  43.09] 

Net  cost  per  bushel |       .83| 

Value  of  product  per  acre |  44.37|  27.13 

Value  of  product  per  bushel |       .85| 


557| 

669| 

881] 

881! 

1191 

3.363 

30.0| 

31.81 

52.31 

34.4] 

21.4 

25.6 

301 

561 

1 

34] 

261 

30 

1 

35 

i  4.67IS  4.711$  3.15|.f  3.511$  4.20  S  4.25 

3.851 

2.8o| 

2.34 

3.50] 

2.07] 

3.16 

3.02] 

3.75] 

2.49 

1.89] 

2.871 

3.05 

2.441 

2.36] 

1.96] 

2.341 

3.58 

2.30 

.32] 

.50] 

.31] 

.14] 

.861 

.37 

5.311 

4.761 

1.641 

2.14i 

1.001 

4.07 

.421 

.46] 

.391 

.40] 

.481 

.44 

5.801 

6.70] 

5.32] 

5.24] 

4.99' 

5.72 

1.821 

2.13] 

1.40] 

1.36] 

2.13! 

1.73 

27.651 

28.22] 

19.001 

20.52' 

22.18 

25.09 

2.64| 

2.39] 

l.lli 

1.14] 

2.04] 

2.08 

25.011 

25.83! 

17.89] 

19.381 

20.14 

23.01 

.831 

.56] 

.531 

.75] 

.671 

.66 

27.131 

30.111 

19.42]   21.941 

23.41 

25.44 

.901 

.651 

.57] 

.841 

.781 

.73 

CORN  STATISTICS 
Iowa  Rainfall  in  Inches 


243 


Year 


March 

p. 

0) 

Ml 

1890    1  1.S7! 

1891    1  2.60| 

1892    1  2.22| 

1893    1  2.141 

1894    1  2.03| 

I  I 

1895    I  .83| 

1896    1  1.101 

1897    I  2.39! 

1898    !  1.94J 

1899    1  1.' 

I  I 

1900    1  2.06! 

1901    1  2.641 

1902    1  1.45i 

1903    1  1.381 

1904    j  2.18| 

'  I 

1905    1  2.041 

1906    1  2.34| 

1907    1  1.351 

1908    1  1.58! 

1909    !  1.53i 

1  1 

1910    1  .17! 

1911    !  .93| 

1912    !  2.01| 

1913    i  2.48| 

3914    1  1.691 

I  I 

1915    1  .96] 

1916    1  1.571 

1917    !  1.84| 

1918     1  .63| 

1919    1  2.33! 

1920    1  3.02| 

1921    1  1.57! 

1922    j  1.97! 

1923    1  2.87i 

1924    1  I 

1925    1  I 

1926    1  I 


1.80| 
2.15| 
4.75] 
4.21| 
3.071 

I 
2.62| 
5.021 
5.351 
2.561 
621     2.40| 

I 
2.67! 
1.79J 
1.71| 
2.98J 
3.631 

3.031 

2.421 
1.32| 
2.24| 
4.58! 
I 
1.48| 
3.091 
2.66[ 
3.28| 
2.521 

I 
1.41| 
2.62| 

4.55| 
2.32! 

4.78| 

I 
4.59| 
3.341 
3.06| 
2.091 


3.56 
3.18 

8.77 
3.45 

1.87 

3.19 
6.69 
1.92 
4.67 
6.23 

3.31 
2.35 
5.39 

8.55 
3.78 

5.95 
3.54 
3.48 

8.34| 
4.341 

3.41 
3.76 
3.33 
6.24 
3.31 

7.34 
4.93 
3.87 
6.87 
3.11 

3.26 
4.23 
3.53 

2.84 


7.76|  1.981 

5.39|  4.22| 

5.19|  5.29! 

3.911  3.331 

2.671  .63 


4.321 
3.111 

3.81 

4.72 


3.981 
3.71! 
7.161 
2.86i 
3.45| 


5.35| 
5.66| 
6.411 

I 
1.99i 
1.821 
2.74| 
3.31| 
5.57] 

I 
4.161 
3.711 
6.651 
5.291 
6.131 

I 
3.56| 

3.76| 
1.82| 
4.93| 

! 


3.40| 
6.901 
3.261 

2.98| 


5.041     3.07 


6.15 
2.34 

8.67 
4.83 
4.41 


5.531     2.91 
3.92|     3.04 


7.27 
3.66 
4.77 

1.86 
2.27 
3.71 

1.82] 
2.27 

8.32 
1.78 
2.27 
3.17 
2.86 

4.22 
2.53 
6.31 
1.75 


3.41| 

4.24| 
2.24 
2.32 
1.58 


4.43| 
3.52 
1.86 
3.44 
3.68 

4.65 
1.29 


4.05 
3.95 
4.33 

4.77 


3.88| 
3.321 

3.78| 
2.68| 
2.191 

2.8li 
2.581 
2.29| 
3.61| 
2.591 

3.351 

5.04! 
3.061 

5.421 


2.97 
1.33 
1.53 
2.34 
3.57 

3.03 
4.09 
2.04 
2.69 
.93 

4.98 
4.77 


6.58|  4.35 
6.64|  3.81 
3.431     2.78 


3.81 
4.16 
2.75 
1.20 


1.811     3.58 


3.59 
5.12 
3.98 
3.31 

7.88 

6.03 
3.89 
2.90 
1.87 
5.34 

3.30 
6.72 
2.03 


244 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


Iowa  Temperature  in  Degrees  Fahrenheit 


1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 

1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 

19(10 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
3908 
1909 

1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 

1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 

1920 
1921 
1922 
1923 
1924 

1925 
1926 


31.8| 

41.0| 

I 
34.4| 
30.9| 
32.0| 
37. 5| 
23.0 

i 
30.7! 
34.2  ( 
39.1| 

38.81 
34.8J 

I 
41.5| 
27.1| 
40.61 
37.9| 
32.5| 

I 
48.9! 
39.41 
24.9| 
31.9| 
34.71 

I 
29.3 
35.2J 
34.6| 

42.91 

37.5[ 

I 
3S.0| 

42.81 
38.31 
29.4| 


45.5 
51.7i 

I 
54.2| 
54.51 
47.9] 
48.1| 
4S.9| 

52.2 
44.9 
48.2 
49.8 
44.1 

I 
47.5| 
52. 5| 
41.51 
50.5 
43.81 


52.5 1 
46.7| 
49.9| 
50. 2| 
48.6| 

! 

57.2J 
47.1| 
45.51 

44.8! 
48.4| 

I 
42.41 
52.4| 
49.9 
48.4 

I 


57.7 
58.3 

54.0| 
5G.6| 
61.1! 

61.41 
65.5i 
58.5| 
59.6| 
60.21 

63.2| 

60.7| 
63.8| 
61.61 

59.6| 

I 
58.31 
60.8| 
53.5 
59.4 
57.9 

I 
55.4| 
64.9| 
62.7| 
59.41 
62.2| 

1 
56.11 
59.9 1 
55.1| 
64.9| 
58. 2j 


I 
59.4| 
63.3| 
63.41 
59.6J 
I 
I 


72.7 
69.1 
69.2 
71.2 

73.2| 

I 
69.7 
69.1 
69.1 
71.4 
70.7| 

69.7 
72.3 
65.2 
64.6 
67.1 

69.9| 
67.9| 
66.5 
67.1 
69.1 

I 
69.5| 
75.71 
66.2 
71.5 
72.2 

I 
65.li 
64.5| 
66.0 
70.81 
71.9| 

I 
70.7| 
74.7| 
72.2| 
70.9 1 

i 


I 
75.6| 
68.51 
73.0  j 
75.0; 
76.4 

i 
72.lt 
73.61 
75.61 
73.41 
73.1 

i 
73.4| 

82.4| 
73.11 

72.9| 
70.6| 

I 
70.6, 
70.9| 

73.7| 
73.01 

72.3| 

I 
74.51 
75.5| 
74.61 
76.11 
76.6J 

I 
69.51 

79.71 
74.3| 
73.11 

77.4| 

I 
72.3 

77.9| 
71.5| 
76.51 


I 
68.4| 
69.11 
71.4) 
69.4 
74.6 


77.4, 
73.8, 
69.1 
69.1 
69.1 
i 
74.3! 
74.11 
71.11 
70.0, 
76.1' 

71.9 

71.71 
71.0 


65.91 
74.0| 
69.41 
76.01 
71.5 

69.3 

72.1| 
73.8 
70.61 


m  _ 

59.3 
67.3 
64.7 
64.7 
G5.1 


71.91  66.8 

71.7  58.5 

68.9  70.9 

71.2  65.3 

74.4  62.5 


64.4 
63.3 
59.1 
60.8 
64.0 

65.8 
67.2 
62.8 
67.9 
62.4 

63.2 
65.8 
62.1 
64.5 
64.5 

63.7 
62.5 
62.6 
58.6 
67.5 

66.5 
67.3 
67.1 


CORN  STATISTICS 


245 


Illinois  Rainfall  in  Inches 


m 


I  I 

1890    1  3.92| 

1891    1  3.151 

1892    1  2.141 

1893    1  3.121 

1894    !  2.82| 

i  I 

1895    1  1.62| 

1896    1  1.841 

1897    1  5.96| 

1898    1  V.29! 

1899    i  2.99| 

I  I 

1900    1  1.991 

1901    1  3.461 

1902    1  3.391 

1903    1  3.02| 

1904    1  6.23| 

I  ! 

1905    !  2.27| 

1906    i  3.S4I 

1907    :..|  3.081 

1908    1  3.111 

1909    1  2.34| 

i  I 

1910    1  .261 

1911    1  1.72| 

1912    1  3.28| 

1913    1  5.53| 

1914    !  2.221 

I  I 

1915    1  .84] 

1916    !  1.961 

1917    1  2.851 

1918     1  .961 

1919    1  3.441 

!  1 

1920    1  5.011 

1921    1  5.13! 

1922    1  6.32| 

1923    i  4.341 

1924    1  j 

I  I 

1925    1  I 

1926    1  I 


3.64 

3.97 

3.18 

2.25 

6.43 

8.14 

7.69 

4.34 

2.75 

3.28 

2.08 

2.38 

2.96 

5.78 

4.26 

1.93 

3.261 

1.54| 

I 
1.541 
1.651 
2.391 
4.29| 
3.711 

I 
3.64| 
2.071 
2.751 
4.40| 
6.24| 

I 
3.44| 
5.061 
4.90] 

2.83| 
2.221 

I 
1.3  5  j 
1.641 
4.761 
5.391 
2.501 

I 
4.421 
4.81| 
5.05| 
2.391 


5.78| 
6.061 

I 

4.22] 
1.89] 
4.181 
3.191 
3.411 

I 
4.41i 
2.70[ 
4.02| 
7.761 
4.011 

I 
4.961 
1.92| 
3.84i 
3.09] 
2.30i 

I 
6.991 
4.69! 
4.22| 
5.21! 
5.22! 

I 
4.99! 
2.09i 
3.59! 
4.33| 

I 


5.31 
4.19 
5.86 
3.45 
2.26 

2.77 
3.881 

4.57i 
4.341 

2.75! 

4.41 
3.31 
8.01 
2.86 

3.09! 

I 
3.391 
3.251 

4.46| 

2.861 

4.15! 

I 
2.291 
2.77| 
3.271 
2.491 
2.611 

I 
4.79| 
5.561 
5.48 
3.49 
4.61 

I 
2.15i 
3.75| 
1.491 
3.50! 


1.73 

2.011 
3.861 
1.921 
1.461 

I 
5.36| 
6.35! 

3.45| 
2.931 

3.741 
I 
4.191 
2.39| 
4.79! 
3.72| 
4.621 
1 
4.861 
2.36! 
5.72! 
3.401 
4.5^2-1 

I 
4.111 
2.34! 
4.261 
2.23! 
1.491 

I 
6.691 
1.251 
2.86 
2.38| 
1.93J 

2.471 
1.841 
3. 


2.85 
4.74| 
2.37 
.98 
1.77 

2.85 
2.80 
1.12 

4.411 

2.57! 

I 
3.87! 
1.84| 
4.37| 
4.461 
4.071 

I 
3.45! 
3.981 
5.471 
2.451 
2.22| 

I 
2.701 
4.191 
4.041 
2.37[ 
3.43^ 


6.-09' 

4.151 
2.66! 
3.821 
2.87 1 

2.9ll 
5.121 

1.70| 

! 
I 


2.74 
1.07 
1.97 
3.07 
4.94 

2.88 
5.46 
1.02 
4.86 
2.04 

3.55 
1.96 
4.07 
3.79 
5.05 

3.08 
5.00 
2.64 
1.29 
3.69 

4.54 
8.74 
2.88 
2.94 
3.83 


I    / 


4.22 
2.92 
2.61 
3.77 
3.57 

2.70 
6.62 
1.94 


246 


CORN  AX!)  ("0RX-(;R0\VIXG 


Illinois  Temperature  in 

Degrees  Fahrenheit 

^ 
g 

a 

»-5 

>-> 

3 
1-0 

he 
< 

S 

02 

1890 

J^'^ 

K 

1 

33.11 
34.01 
35.91 
38.01 

45.8 

39.0 
35.6 
39.5 
43.4 
34.3 

35.2 
39.5 
43.1 
45.5 
40.0 

45.4 
31.1 
47.7 
44.6 
39.4 

51.9 
41.9 
30.9 
37.4 
38.3 

35.5 
38.6 
42.0 

47.4 
42.7 

42.3 
50.0 
42.9 
37.2 

t 
1 

1 
53.11 
53.8 
49.4 
50.6 
53.8 

54.8 
59.0 
50.4 
49.6 
53.8 

53.5 
50.0 

50.8 
52.8 
46.8 

51.9 
55.3 
44.1 
52.5 
50.3 

53.4 
50.0 
53.4 

52.4 
52.7 

58.9 
50.9 
49.8 
47.9 
53.4 

47.3 
55.6 
53.9 
51.2 

1 
59.3 
59.2 
58.6 
59.3 
61.5 

63.8 
69.5 
59.3 
62.2 
64.0 

64.8 
61.6 
67.2 
65.2 
62.2 

63.1 
63.8 
56.7 
63.3 
60.3 

58.0 
68.2 
64.8 
62.9 
65.3 

59.8 
63.6 
56.6 
67.1 
59.8 

61.4 
65.5 
66.5 
60.9 

1 

75.4 
72.0 
71.7 
72.3 
75.0 

74.8 
71.4 
71.0 
73.3 
73.3 

71.1 
74.9 
69.6 
66.3 
69.7 

72.6 
70.5 
68.4 
70.5 
71.9 

70.1 
75.5 
68.4 
73.9 

75.5 

68.5 
67.2 
68.5 
72.1 
75.0 

72.1 
76.6 
73.9 
73.2 

75.9 

71.0 
74.3 
77.8 
76.3 

74.1 
75.2 
77.0 
75.5 
75.3 

75.5 
82.2 
76.2 
75.9 
73.2 

73.1 

73.8 
75.7 
75.4 
73.4 

76.3 
76.2 

75.7 
78.3 
79.0 

72.8 
80.8 
75.1 

1     73.8 
78.7 

1     74.5 
1     80.7 
i     75.0 

70.5 
71.6 
73.4 

72.7 
74.7 

75.0 
73.3 
71.7 
73.8 
76.3 

79.8 
74.8 
71.9 
72.7 
70.8 

75.0 
76.3 
72.9 
74.0 

77.2 

73.3 
73.2 
72.6 

78.1 
76.0 

67.7 
77.0 
71.8 
78.8 
73.6 

72.6 
74.2 
75.1 

1 

61.9 

]891 

> 

69.4 

1892 

<^^ 

65.1 

1893 

67.9 

1894 

^6» ' 



.... 

67.5 

1895    

1896    

1897    

1898    

1899    

1900    

1901    

1902    

1903    

1904    

1905    

1906    

1907    

1908    

1909    

1910    











V0.7 
6\j.9 
71.3 
69.3 
65.4 

69.4 
66.7 
63.0 
64.8 
67.3 

68.3 
70.7 
65.7 
70.4 
65.0 

66.9 

1911 

69.6 

1912 

67.9 

]913 

67.1 

1914    

1915    

1916  .  .. 

66.8 

68.5 
65.1 

1917 

65.0 

1918  .... 

1919  .... 

1920  .... 

1921  .... 
1922 

60.0 
69.9 

69.7 
71.6 
70.3 

1923  .... 

1924  .... 

1925  .... 

1926  .. 

INDEX 


Absorption  of  water,  167 
Acclimatization,  19 
Acids  in  silage,  81 
Acres  per  day 

Cultivated,  58 

Planted,  51 

Prepared,  44 
Adaptation,  18-21 

Changes  in  corn,  19 

Effect  of  acclimatization,  19 

Home-grown  seed,  IS 

Use  of  unadapted  seed,  20 
Adding  water  to  silage,  83 
Africa,  corn  growing  in,  220 
Age  of  seed,  24 
Air,  168 
Alcohol,  9 

Aleurone  layer,  177 
American  origin,  1-6 
American  stalk  borers,  132 
Angumois  grain  moth,  133 
Aphis,  124 

Argentina,  corn  growing  in,  215 
Army  worm,  130 
Arrangement  of  leaves,  174 
Ash.  96 

Asia,  corn  growing  in,  1,  220 
August  weather,  15 
Automobiles,  run  by  alcohol,  8 

Barnyard  manure,  37 

Benefits  of  yield  tests,  203 

Beverly,  reference  to  corn  in  Virginia, 

144 
Binder  twine  hanger,  30 
Bill-bug,  129 
Biological  origin,  1 
Birds,  134 

Black,  Clyde,  145,  158 
Blade  of  leaf,  174 
"Blind"'   plowing,  56 
Bloody  Butcher,  164 
Boone  County  AVhite,  158 
Borers,  132,  133 
Botanical  characteristics,  170-178 

Flowers,  174 

Kernels,  177 

Leaves,  174 

Roots,  171-173 

Stalks,  173 

Suckers,   173 
Brace  roots,  172 
Brachytic  corn,  147 
Branched  ears,  147 
Breeding,  179-188 

Cross,  181 

Ear-row,  181 


Inbreeding,  182-188 

Selection,  179 
Brown,  reference  to  early  corn  types 

144 
Burnett,  L.  C,  158 
Burning  stalks,  37 
By-products,  206-211 

Calcium,  169 

Calibrating  the  planter,  46 

Calico  corn,  164 

Carbohydrates,  96 

Carbon, 168 

Carbon  dioxide,  81 

Carbon  disulphide  fumigation,  133 

Carrying  capacity  of  fields,  88 

Cart,  seed  corn,  26 

Cash  grain,  104 

Cattle 

Feeding,  96 

Harvesting  with,  90 
Cause  of  dent,  142 
Center  of  production,  9 
Chambers,  J.  M.,  4 
Changes  in  corn  not  adapted,  19 
Characters,  Mendelian,  19' 
Characteristics  of 

Good  silage,  85 

Growth,  167 
Checked  corn,  46 
Chemical  composition,  96 
Chinch  bug,  128 
Chromosomes,  193 
Classification 

Botanical,  140 

Market,  101,  102 
Cliff  Dwellers,  1 
Climate,  8 
Clover,  37 
Cob  products,  211 
Cob  pipes,  211 
Coix,  142 
Cold  nights,  17 
Colonists,  1-5 
Colors,  195 
Columbus,  1,  4 
Commercial 

Feeds,  206-211 

Fertilizers,  38 

Products,  206-211 
Companion  crops,  87 

Cowpeas,  94 

Pumpkins,  95 

Rape,  93 

Soy  beans,  87,  91-93 
Composition,  96 
Conditions  of  germination,  11 


248 


CORN  AND  CORN-GROWING 


Constitution,  167 
Continuous  corn  growing,  35 
Continents,  212-220 
Control  of 

Diseases,  135-140 

Insects,  123-134 

Weeds,  61 
Co-operative  elevators,  102 
Corn  Belt 

American,  9,  10 

Argentine,  9,  10 

Center  of,  9,  10 

Importance  of  corn  in,  S,  9 

Varieties  of,  157-166 
Corn  bill-bug,  129 
Corn-hog  ratios,  115-118 

Based  on  Chicago  values,  116 

Based  on  farm  values,  117 

Close  relationship,  115 
Corn  Products  Company,  210 
Corn  root  aphis,  124 
Corn  root  worm,  125 
Cost  of  production,  119-122 

In  1922,  242 

By  sections  of  the  country,  242 

Man  and  horse  labor,  119 

Owner's,  120 

Reducing,  120 

Share   tenant's,  119 

Silage,  121 

Variation  of,  119 
Cost  of  testing  seed,  33 
Co?ts,  reducing,  120 
Cotton  states,  corn  growing  in,  212 
Countries,  distribution  of  corn,  157 
Country  elevators,  101-103 
Country  Gentleman  sweet  corn,  176 
Cowpeas,  94 
Cracked  corn,  105 
"Cracker-jack,"   152 
Cribs,  67,  71 
Crop  rotations,  35 
Cross  breeding,  181 
Cross  pollination,  181* 
Crows,  134 
Crude  fiber,  97 
Cultivating,   52-58 

Acres  per  day,  58 

Depth  of,  57 

Effect  on  soil,  53,  57 

Listed  corn,  57 

Methods,  57 

Number  of  times,  57 

Reasons  for,  52,  53 

Reducing  the  cost,  58 

Ways,  57 
Cultivators,  54 
Cut-worms,  127 

Damping-off,  139 

Danube  Basin,  corn  growing  in,  218 

December  future  corn  prices,  103 

Definitions 


Fodder,  75 

Grades,  105 

Silage,  81 

Stover,  78 
Democrat  corn,  97 
Dent  corn,  142 
Depth  of 

Cultivation,  57 

Planting,  50 
Detasseling,  186-188 
Development  of  the  plant,  167-169 

Germination,  167 

Growth,  167 
Differential,  price,  100 
Digestible  nutrients,  96 
Diplodia,  137 
Disking,  40 
Diseases,  135-140 

Diplodia,   137 

Fusarium,  137 

Miscellaneous,  139 

Smut,  135 
Disease  resistant  corn,  138 
Distance  between  rows,  56 
Distillation  products,  210 
Distribution  of  varieties,  157 
Double  listing,  48 
Drilled  corn,  47 
Drouth  resisting,  12,  15 
Dry  fodder,  78 

Dry  process  of  manufacture,  206 
Dyes,  211 

Early  corn  culture,  5,  6 
Early  history,  1,  3,  4 
Early  types,  1 
Ear,  177 

Ear-row  breeding,  181 
Ear  w'orm,  131 
Elements,  167,  168 
Elevating,  66 
Elevators,  101 
Endosperm,  176 
Epidermis,  173 
Essentials  of 

Good  plowing,  42 

Germination,  167 

Growth,  167 
Euchlaena,  142 
European  corn  borer,  132 
Europe,  corn  growing  in,  212-220 
Evolution,  2 
Exports,  225,  226 

Family,  140 

Fat,  96 

Federal  grades,  104 

Feeding,  96-98 

Feeding  value  of  soft  corn,  74 

Female  flowers,  174 

Fermented  products,  211 

Fertility,  35 

Fertilization,  176 


INDEX 


249 


Fertilizers,  37,  38 
Fibrous  roots,  170 
Filling  the  silo,  82 
Flakes,  207 
Flint  corn,  146 
Flour,  207 
Flour  corn,  147 
Flowering  habits,  174 
Flowers,  174 
Fodder,  75-79 

Harvesting,  77 

Losses  in,  77 

Planting,  76 

Uses,  77 

Varieties,  75 
Food  value,  74 
Foreign  countries,  212-220 
Foreign  material  in  corn,  105 
Fossil  ear,  2 
Freed  White  Dent,  163 
Freezing,  injury  by,  24 
Frequency  of  cultivation,  57 
Frost,  15 
Fumigation,  133 
Funk  Yellow  Dent,  164 
Furrow  opening,  48 
Fusarium,  13? 
Futures,  103 

Gama  grass,  2 
Genus,  142 

Geographical  origin,  1 
Geography  of  corn  prices,  112 
Germ,  177 
Germination,  11 
Gloves,  husking,  64 
Gluten  feed,  207 
Golden  Glow,  162 
Gourd-seed  corn,  3,  143 
Grades,  market,  104,  105 
Grading  seed,  33 
Grain  act,  104 
Grain  weevil,  133 
Grass  family,  142 
Grasshoppers,  131 
Grooves  of  the  stalk,  173 
Groups  of  weeds,  61-63 
Growth  essentials,  167-169 

Heat,  168 

Light,  168 

Plant  food,  168 

Vigor,  167 

Water,  167 
Growing  corn  outside  of  the  Corn  Belt, 
212-220 

Africa,  220 

Asia,  220 

Argentina,  215 

Cotton  states,  212 

Danube  Basin,  218 

Mexico,  219 

South  Africa,  220 

Western  Europe,  219 


Growing  season,  8,  11,  12 
Grubs,  126 

Hairy  corn,  147 
Hangers,  seed  corn,  29,  30 
Hariot,  Thomas,  4 
Harrowing,  42 
Harshberger,  J.  W.,  2 
Harvesting,   64-69 

For  fodder,  77 

In  the  ear  by  hand,  65 

In  the  ear  by  machine,  65 

With  live  stock,  86-90 
Heat,  8 

Heat  and  rapidity  of  growth,  11 
Heat-damaged  kernels,  105 
Hedging,  102-104 
Heredity,  189-198 
Heterozygosis,  191 
History,  1-7 

Hog-corn  ratios,  115-118 
Hogging  down,  86-89 

Advantages,  86 

Carrying  capacity  of  corn,  88 

Disadvantages,  86 

Principle  of,  87 
Supplements  necessary  for,  87 

Variety  of  corn  to  use,  87 
Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  162 
Home-grown  seed,  18,  20 
Homozygosis.  191 
Hook,  husking,  64 
Horse  labor,  119 
Horses,  harvesting  with,  90 
Husking 

By  hand,  64 

By  machine,  65 
Husk-pile  silage,  156 
Husks,  177 
Hydrocyanic  gas,  133 

Illinois  rainfall  month  by  month,  245 
Illinois  temperature  by  months,  246 
Importance  of  corn 

In  the  Corn  Belt,  8,  9 

In  the  United  States,  8,  9 
Imports,  226 
Importing  seed,  21 
Inbreeding,    182-188 
Indian  corn  growing,  4,  5 
Influence  of  weeds  on  yield,  59 
Insects,  123-134 

Angumois  grain  moth,  133 

Army  worm,  130 

American  stalk  borers,  132 

Chinch  bug,  128 

Corn  bill-bug,  129 

Corn  ear  worm,  131 

Corn  root  aphis,  124 

Corn  root  worm,  125 

Cut  worm,  127 

European  corn  borer,  132 

Grasshopper,  131 


(ORX  AND  (X)RX-GROWIXG 


Mediterranean  flour  moth,  133 

Weevil,  133 

White  grub  worm,  126 

Wire  worm,  123 
Internode,  173 
Iowa  Corn  Yield  Test,  204 
Iowa  rainfall  month  by  month,  243 
Iowa  temperature  by  months,  244 
Iowa  State  Agricultural  Society,  4 
Iron,  169 
Jap  popcorn,  150 
Jobbers,  47 
Job's  tears,  142 
Johnson  County  White,  162 
Judging,  199-201 
June  weather,  11 
July  weather,  11-15 

Kansas  Sunflower,  160 
Kernel,  177 

Kiesselbach,  T.  A.,  174 
Kinds  of 

Cultivators,  54 

Silos,  81 
Krug  corn, 158 

Labor  cost,  119 

Later  history,  5,  6 

Lateral-branched  corn,  147 

"Laying  by,"  55 

Leaming,  159 

Leaves,  174 

Length  of  season,  9 

Level  cultivation,  57 

Life  history  of  insects,  123,  134 

Light,  168 

Ligule,  174 

Line  elevators,  101-102 

Linkage,  193 

Listed  corn 

Cultivation,  57 

Planting,  45-51 
Live  stock,  harvesting  with,  86-90 
Lorain  on  early  corn  types,  143-144 
Low  testing  seed,  33 

Machine  busker,  65 
Magnesium,  168 
Male  flowers,  174 
Man  labor,  119 

Manufactured  products,  206-211 
Manure,  37 
Market  grades,  104 
Marketing,  99-105 

Federal  grades,  104 

From  farm  to  local  elevator,  99 

Price  differential,  100 

Primary  corn  markets,  99 

Selling  at  Chicago,  102 

Types  of  country  elevators,  101 
McCulloch,  Fred,  158 
Measuring 

Cribs,  68 


Silage,  85 

Wagons,  68 
Mechanical  structure  of  kernel,  177 
Mendelian  characters,  189 
Mesocotyl,  172 

Mexico,  corn  growing  in,  2,  219 
Million-dollar  rains,  13 
Minnesota  13,  52 
Mixed   corn,   105 
Modified  rag  doll,  138 
Moisture  in  corn,  25 
Moldy  corn,  73 
Mound  Builders,  1 

Nitrogen,  169 
Node,  173 
Norsemen,  1 
North  America,  4-7 
Northern  corn  root  worm,  125 
Northwestern  Dent.  163 
Number  of  stalks  per  hill,  49 
Number  of  varieties,  157 
Nutritive  ratio,  96 

Objects  of  cultivation,  53 
Oil,  209 
Origin  of 

Corn,  1,  2 

Dent  corn,  142 
Other  countries,  212-220 
Oxygen,  168 

Parks,  W.  F.,  2 

Parts  of  the  plant,  170-177 

Pasturing  stalks,  68 

Pearl  popcorn,  150 

Peg,  husking,  64 

Permanent  roots,  172 

Peru,  2 

Phosphorus,  169 

Picking  seed,  22,  27 

Pistillate  flowers,  174 

Plant,  170-177 

Planter,  calibrating  the,  46 

Plant  foods,  168 

Planting.  45-51 

Acres  per  day,  51 

Depth,  50 

Distance  between  rows,  49 

Furrow  opening,  48 

Listing,  48 

Rate,  49 

Replanting,  51 

Surface,  47 

Time,  51 
Plant  selection  of  seed,  23,  24 
Plowing,  42 
Pod  corn,  147 
Poison,  137 

Poisoning  of  live  stock,  73 
Pollen,  176 
]\)llination,  176 
Popcorn,   149-152 


INDEX 


251 


Amount  grown,  152 

Cribbing  and  shelling,  151 

Cultural  methods,  150 

Marketing,  151 

Types,  149 

Uses,  152 

Why  it  pops,  149 
Potassium,  169 
Power  shellers,  68 
Precipitation,  13 
Preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  40-44 

Sod,  42 

Stalk  ground,  40 

Stubble  ground,  41 
Preserving  silage,  84 
Price  of  seed  corn,  22 
Prices,  107 

General  price  level,  110 

Geography  of  prices,  112 

Hogs,  109 

Previous  crops,  lOS 

Shrinkage,  110 

Size  of  crops,  107 

Time  of  year,  110 

Value,   114 

Wages  of  city  labor,  111 

Weather,  109 

Wheat,  107 
Proclamation,  seed  corn,  22 
Production,  6,  7,  227,  228 
Products,  206-211 
Prolific  corns,  166 
Pumpkins,  95 
Purple-leaved  corn,  147 

Quack  grass,  62 

Quick  method  of  planting,  47 

Rag  doll  tester,  31 
Rainfall,  11-17 
Ramosa  corn,  147 
Rape,  93,  94 

Method  of  planting,  94 

Varieties,   94 
Rate  of  planting,  49 
Ratios,  corn-hog,  115-118 
Relation  of 

Climate,  9 

Soil,  39 
Replanting,  51 
Ridge  cultivation,  58 
Roasting  ears,  153 
Rodents,  134 
Root  rots,  138 
Roots,  170-173 

Brace,  172 

Permanent,  172 

Temporary,  171 
Rotation  of  crops,  35 
Roughage,  98 
Rust,  139 

Salting  soft  corn,  72 


Score  card,  201 
Seed  bed,  41 
Seed  corn,  22-30 

Adaptation,  18-21 

Butting  and  tipping,  33 

Buying,  20 

Cart,  26 

Foreign,  19 

Freezing  injury,  24 

Grading,  33 

Home-grown,  18 

.Judging,   199-201 

Kind  to  select,  26 

Method  of  selection,  26 

Picking,  22,  23 

Plant  selection,  26 

Price,  22 

Proclamation,  22 

Shelling,  33 

Storing,  28-30 

Testing,   31-33 
Selection  breeding,  197 
Selection  of  seed,  26 
Self-fertilization,  176 
Sheeping-dowm,  89 
Shelling,  68 
Shipping,   102 
Shocking  fodder,  77 
Shew  corn,  199-201 
Shows,  202 
Shredding,  73,  78 
Shrinkage,  67 
Silage,  70,  80-85 

Characteristics  of  good,  85 

Compared  to  other,  85 

Culture  of  corn  for,  82 

Defined,  81 

Frosted  corn,  84 

Varieties  for,  70 

Yields  of,  82 
Silks,  176 
Silos,  80-85 

Pilling,  82 

Kinds  of,  81 

Number   of,   80 
.      Opening,  84 

Refilling,  83 

Preventing  waste  in,  84 
Silver  King,  160 
Silvermine,  159 
Single  listing,  48 
Smother  crops,  60 
Smut,  135 
Snapping,  65 

Sod  ground,  preparation,  42 
Soft    (flour^    corn,  147 
Soft  corn,  70-74 

Classification  of,  70 

Cribbing,  71 

Ensiling,  70 

Feeding,  73 

Food  value  of,  74 

Marketing,  73 


252 


CORN  AND  CORN  GROWING 


Salting,  12 

Shocking,  71 

Shredding,  73 
Soft  starch,  178 
Soiling  crop,  77 
Soils,  35-39 

Barnyard  manure,  37 

Clover,  37 

Commercial  fertilizers,  38 

Crop  rotations,  35 

Plow  under  stalks,  37 

Proper  handling,  38 
South  Africa,  corn  growing,  220 
Southern  corn  root  worm,  125 
Soy  beans,  87,  91-93 

Effect  on  corn  crop,  91 

Inoculation,  92 

Method  of  planting,  91 

Rate  of  planting,  92 

Varieties,  92 
Spikelets,  174 
Spread  of  growth,  8 
Stages  of  ripening,  177 
Stalk,  173 
Stalk  borer,  132 
Stalk  cutter,  40 
Stalk  ground,  40 
Stalks,  number  per  hill,  49 
Staminate  flower,  174 
Stand,  49 
Starch,  178 

Starchy  sweet  corn,  147 
Statistics,  221-242 
St.  Charles  White,  161 
Stigma,  176 

Stock,  harvesting  with,  86-90 
Storage,  seed  corn,  28-30 
Stored  corn 

Heating  of,  20 

Insects  injurious  to,  133 

Shrinkage  of,  68 
Storing  seed 

Methods  of,  28-30 

Place  for,  28 
Stover,  78 

Stowell's  Evergreen,  153,  154 
Striped-leaved  corn,  147 
Structure  of  plant,  170-177 
Stubble  ground,  41 
Suckers,  173 
Sugar,  208,  209 
Supplementing  corn,  98 
Surface  planting,  47 
Sweet  corn,  153-156 

Canning,  155 

Climate,  154 

Cultural  methods,  155 

Difference  from  field  corn,  153 

Easy  on  the  land,  154 

Harvesting,  155 

Husk  pile  silage,  156 

Marketing,  155 

Seed,  154 


Soil,  154 
Statistics,  156 
Uses,  153 
Varieties,  153 
Syrup.  210 

Tassel,  176 
Tassel-ear  corn,  147 
Technique  of  inbreeding,  186-188 
Temperature,  11-17 
Temperature  for  germination,  11 
Temporary  roots,  171 
Teosinte,  143 
Terminal  elevators,  99 
Testing  seed  corn,  31-33 
Thickness  of  planting,  49 
Tillage,  40-51 
Time  required  for 

Cultivating,  58 

Harvesting,  69 

Husking,  69 

Planting,  51 

Preparation  of  seed  bed,  44 
Time  to 

Pick  seed,  23 

Plant,  51 
Tip  cap,  177 
Transpiration,  174 
Tribe,  142 
Tripsaceae,  142 
Tripsacum,  142 
Types,  3,  142,  147,  210 

Unadapted  seed,  20 
United  States,  221-232 
Unloading,  method  of,  83 
Uses 

Commercial  products,  206-211 

Feed,  96-98 
Utilization  of 

Fodder,  77 

Soft  corn,  70 

Value,  8,  97 
Value  of  silage,  85 
Varieties,  157 

Bloody  Butcher,  164 

Boone  County  White,  158 

Calico,  164 

Freed  White  Dent,  163 

Funk  Yellow  Dent,  164 

Golden  Glow,  162 

Hogue  Yellow  Dent,  162 

.Johnson  County  White,  102 

Kansas  Sunflower,  160 

Leaming,  159 

Minnesota   13,  52,  162 

Miscellaneous,  165 

Northwestern  Dent,  163 

Popcorn,    149-152 

Reid  Yellow  Dent,  157 

St.  Charles  White,  161 

Silver  King,  160 


INDEX 


253 


Silvermine,  159 

Soft  corn,  166 

Sweet  corn,  153-156 

Wimple  Yellow  Dent,  163 
Ventilators,  crib,  72 
Viability  of  seed,  23 
Vigor,  167 
Vitamines,  97 
Vitality  of  seed,  24 
Wages  of  city  labor  and   corn  prices, 

111 
Water,  167 
Water  in  silage,  83 
Waxy  corn,  147 
Weather 

August,  15 

Cold  nights,  1-7 

Frost,  15 

Drouth,   15 

Heat,  16 

Illinois,  since  1890,  245-246 

Iowa,  since  1890,  243-244 

June,  11 

July,  11,  14 

Prices  and,  14 

Summary  of,  17 
Weeder,  54 
Weeds,  59-63 

Classification,  60 

Control,  61 


Influence  on  yield,  59 

Names,  60 

Smother  crops  for,  60 
Weevil,  133 

Western  Europe,  corn  growing  in,  219 
Wet  process  of  manufacture,  207 
Wheat  nrices,  influence  on  corn  prices, 

107 
White  corn,  105 
White  grub  worm,  126 
White  Rice  popcorn,  150 
Wild  grass,  2 
Wimple  Yellow  Dent,  163 
Wind  pollination,  176 
Wire  hangers,  29 
Wire-worm,  123 

Woodford  county  yield  test,  203 
World  war  and  corn,  8 

Xenia,  190 

Yellow  corn,  105 
Yields 

Corn,  33,  203 

Silage,  82 
Yield  tests,  203-205 

Iowa,  204 

Woodford  county,  203 

Zea  Mays,  142 


WmmSSm^^^^^^^^^^^^^m 


